UNIT 11 FIELDWORK TRADITIONS IN ANTHROPOLOGY

 Introduction to Social Anthropology

• Social anthropology is observational, comparative, and generalizing.
• It involves collecting data through observation, abstracting propositions, comparing different societies, and arriving at generalizations.

1. Characteristics of Social Anthropology:

   • Observational:
     • Data collected using observation techniques on smaller units (societies, communities, neighborhoods, groups, institutions).
   • Inductive Science:
     • Moves from particular to general by abstracting propositions about the entire society from specific studies.
   • Comparative:
     • Data from different societies compared to find commonalities and differences.
   • Generalizations:
     • Attempts to derive generalizations about the unit of study, previously referred to as ‘laws’ of society.
     • Acknowledges human behavior variability, avoiding strict ‘laws’ like in natural sciences.

2. Transition from Arm-Chair Anthropology to Fieldwork:

   • Criticism of Arm-Chair Anthropology:
     • Relied on second-hand information from travelers, missionaries, army personnel, photojournalists, etc.
     • Information often biased, exaggerated, and prejudiced.
     • Scholars termed ‘arm-chair anthropologists’ due to lack of empirical study.
   • Shift to First-Hand Studies:
     • Emphasis on studying societies first-hand.
     • Anthropologists became data collectors, not just analysts.
     • Data collected by living with people in their natural habitats.

3. Importance of Fieldwork:

• Understanding Society:
  • Necessary for understanding the structure and function of society.
  • Essential for planning and implementing societal changes.
• Impact on Change Programs:
• Past programs failed due to lack of alignment with people's customs and aspirations.
• Changes rejected when perceived as alien or not addressing pressing needs.
• Coercion used in some cases, opposed by anthropologists who advocated for understanding social life before introducing changes.

The Importance of Fieldwork

• Fieldwork is central to social anthropology.
• Fieldwork involves living with people in their natural habitat to understand their reality from an insider's perspective.
• It reveals discrepancies between what people think, say, do, and what they think they ought to have done.

1. Significance of Fieldwork:

   • Central to Social Anthropology:
     • Essential for understanding people and their reality.
   • Influence on Other Disciplines:
     • Methodology of fieldwork has been adopted by other fields, including natural and biological sciences.
     • Courses on fieldwork introduced in various disciplines.

2. Henri Bergson's Insight:

   • Two Ways of Knowing:
     • By going around a phenomenon.
     • By going inside a phenomenon (insider’s view).

3. Methodology of Fieldwork:

   • Insider’s View:
     • Involves understanding a phenomenon from within.
     • Investigator lives with the people, becoming a member of their society.
   • Difference Between Survey and Fieldwork:
     • Survey:
       • Collects information on what people say they do.
       • Responses may be normatively correct and socially desirable but not truthful.
     • Fieldwork:
       • Reveals what people actually do.
       • Helps uncover discrepancies between what is said and what is done.

4. Example of John Beattie’s Study:

• Bunyoro Case:
• Pharmacist claims adherence to honesty.
• In reality, he steals medicines and sells them illegally.
• Fieldwork exposed the true behavior contrary to the respondent’s claims.

History of Fieldwork

• Evolution of fieldwork methodology in anthropology.
• Shift from reliance on travel accounts to firsthand data collection.
• Evolutionary approach as the initial focus of anthropology.
• Criticism and eventual decline of the evolutionary approach.
• Development of museums and their influence on fieldwork.

1. Initial Approach: Evolutionary Focus

   • Inspired by Charles Darwin’s "On the Origin of Species" (1859).
   • Focus on evolution of society, its institutions, and their forms.
   • Early anthropologists like Edward Tylor and Lewis Morgan:
     • Relied on travel accounts and administrative reports.
     • Tylor's fieldwork in Mexico (published "Anahuac" in 1861).
     • Morgan's work among the Iroquois (published "League of the Iroquois" in 1851).

2. Travel and Early Fieldwork:

   • Travels to unknown parts of the world increased from the 14th century.
   • Improved travel facilities led to more travel accounts.
   • Museums developed sections on ethnology of people.
     • Excursions to tribal areas to collect material culture and provide write-ups.
   • Early fieldwork expeditions:
     • British anthropologists W.H.R. Rivers and A.C. Haddon in Torres Straits (1898).
     • American anthropologist Franz Boas among Eskimos in Baffin Island (1883).

3. Criticism of Evolutionary Approach:

   • Relied on secondary sources rather than firsthand data.
   • Evolutionary theory criticized for paucity of data.
   • Discovery of institutions like monogamy and nuclear family in primitive societies challenged the evolutionary timeline.

4. Shift to Firsthand Fieldwork:

• Need to collect firsthand data about cultural facts.
• General dissatisfaction with evolutionary theory.
• Preference for firsthand study of people and their culture.
• Fieldwork became the hallmark of anthropological work.

Contributions of Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown and Bronislaw Kasper Malinowski

• Radcliffe-Brown’s functional and diffusionist study of the Andaman Islanders.
• Malinowski’s intensive fieldwork with Trobriand Islanders and principles of fieldwork.
• Emphasis on firsthand study, learning local languages, and participant observation.

1. A.R. Radcliffe-Brown’s Contributions:

   • Fieldwork on Andaman Islanders:
     • Conducted from 1906-1908.
     • Focused on functional integration of Andamanese society.
     • Also explored diffusion of cultural traits due to influence from W.H.R. Rivers.
   • Significance:
     • Demonstrated the necessity of firsthand study to counter evolutionary assumptions.

2. Bronislaw Malinowski’s Contributions:

   • Fieldwork with Trobriand Islanders:
     • Conducted intensive fieldwork (1914-1918).
     • Published "Argonauts of the Western Pacific" (1922), analyzing Trobriand exchange systems.
   • Principles of Fieldwork:
     • Continuous Observation:
       • Observe behaviors repeatedly over time to identify typical patterns.
       • Focus on collective behavior rather than individual actions.
       • Method known as "concrete, statistical documentation."
     • Study Everyday Life:
       • Move beyond exotic customs to understand the entirety of a society.
       • Examine mundane aspects to grasp societal functions.
     • Immersion:
       • Live in the village with the people, observing customs, ceremonies, and daily routines.
       • Record subtle, everyday occurrences, termed "imponderabilia of social life."
     • Language and Communication:
       • Learn and use the local language to understand cultural concepts.
       • Collect and analyze ethnographic statements, narratives, folklore, and magical formulae.
       • Termed this collection "corpus inscriptionism."
     • Native’s Point of View:
       • Aim to understand the native’s perspective and cultural values.
       • Avoid imposing outsider’s biases.
       • Understand the culture from within.

3. Impact of Malinowski’s Fieldwork:

• Established principles for conducting anthropological fieldwork.
• Advocated for lengthy stays in natural habitats.
• Promoted the importance of participant observation.

Fieldwork in the Twenty-First Century

• Evolution of fieldwork methodologies.
• Influence of globalization and changing fields.
• Expansion to include developed and developing societies.
• Ethical considerations and native anthropologists.
• Virtual and multi-sited fieldwork.
• Auto-ethnography and self-research.

1. Evolution of Fieldwork:

   • Traditional fieldwork involved expeditions to remote areas and living among natives.
   • Globalization has led to fewer societies living in seclusion.
   • Anthropologists now study both lesser-known and developed societies.
   • The field can be an institution, organization, rural, or urban site.

2. Globalization and Changing Fields:

   • Societies are no longer isolated; they interact and influence each other.
   • Anthropologists study the impact of globalization on cultures and societies.

3. Ethical Considerations and Native Anthropologists:

   • Colonial fieldworkers faced ethical issues.
   • Native anthropologists now study their own societies to address these issues.
   • Ethical research practices are emphasized.

4. Virtual Fieldwork:

   • Anthropologists study human activities online.
   • The virtual world is considered a significant field of study.

5. Multi-Sited Fieldwork:

   • Researchers conduct fieldwork in multiple locations where subjects can be found.
   • Example: Serena Nanda’s study of Hijras across different parts of India.

6. Auto-Ethnography:

• Focuses on the researcher’s own experiences and life.
• The fieldworker narrates their lived experiences.
• Reflects a trend of self-research in anthropology.

Ethics in Fieldwork

• Definition of ethics.
• Importance of ethics in anthropological fieldwork.
• Potential ethical issues from topic selection to data presentation.
• Key ethical attributes in data collection.

1. Definition of Ethics:

   • Moral principles governing behavior towards self and others.

2. Importance in Anthropological Fieldwork:

   • Fieldwork involves interactions with humans and sensitive information.
   • Ethical issues arise at various stages, from topic selection to data presentation.

3. Potential Ethical Issues:

   • Selection of Topic: Ensuring the chosen topic does not exploit or harm the community.
   • Data Collection: Gaining consent and ensuring confidentiality.
   • Presentation: Authentic representation of data and acknowledgment of sources.

4. Key Ethical Attributes in Data Collection:

   • Confidentiality: Protect sensitive issues and personal information.
   • Consent: Obtain permission before collecting data.
   • Utility: Use data for the betterment of the community and society.
   • Knowledge Transmission: Respect community rights over their indigenous knowledge and ensure authentic data representation.