Unit 12 Resistance and Protest

Caste, Hinduism, and Social Resistance: 

Hinduism is often perceived as a pluralistic and tolerant religion, but this view often overlooks the divisive element of caste. The hierarchical structure imposed by the caste system, rooted in Brahmanical ideology, has faced significant resistance throughout history.

Hinduism and the Caste System

• Pluralistic Image: Hinduism is portrayed as tolerant, but this image ignores the harsh reality of the caste system.
• Hierarchical Order: The caste system is a rigid social order that privileges Brahmanism and maintains hierarchy based on the varna system.

Resistance to Brahmanism

• Non-Hindu and Non-Brahmanical Resistance: Oppressed groups and religious movements outside of traditional Hinduism have continuously challenged the caste system.
• Major Historical Resistance:
  • Buddhism and Jainism: Opposed the ritualistic and dogmatic ways of Brahmanism, promoting egalitarian principles.
  • Medieval Saints: Saints like Namdev, Guru Nanak, and Kabir condemned the orthodoxies of Hinduism and the caste hierarchy.

Social Reform Movements

• 19th and Early 20th Century Reformers: Social reformers aimed to transform Hindu cultural practices and values, especially those based on the Vedic traditions.

Key Social Reformers and Movements

1. Pandita Ramabai: Criticized gender discrimination and caste practices within Hinduism.
2. Tarabai Shinde: Wrote against the patriarchal norms and caste hierarchy in society.
3. Jyotiba Phule: Focused on caste abolition, education for lower castes, and women’s rights.
4. B.R. Ambedkar: A prominent figure in anti-caste movements who actively fought against caste oppression and played a significant role in framing the Indian Constitution to ensure social justice.

Understanding Change:

• Linking Social Structure with Change: Resistance to the caste system by various groups highlights the ongoing struggle for social transformation in India.
• Anti-Caste Protests: The initiatives of early reformers laid the groundwork for modern anti-caste movements, which continue to challenge the caste hierarchy.

• Caste System's Impact: It remains a powerful, divisive force within Indian society, driven by Brahmanical ideology.
• Continuous Resistance: Non-Hindu, non-Brahmanical, and modern reformist movements have played crucial roles in challenging the caste hierarchy.
• Evolution of Social Movements: Social reformers of the 19th and 20th centuries significantly influenced modern anti-caste protests and the broader struggle for social equality.

Feminists Crusade Against Patriarchy: Ramabai, Tarabai, and Beyond

Pandita Ramabai and Tarabai Shinde were pioneers in the feminist movement in 19th-century India. They critiqued Hinduism and the caste system, highlighting their inherent patriarchal and casteist nature, which set them apart from other reformers of the time.

1. Pandita Ramabai

• Birth: 23 April 1858.
• Contribution:
  • Exposed the oppression faced by women in Hindu-dominated, caste-ridden society.
  • Founded Arya Mahila Samaj, the first autonomous women’s organization focused on:
    • Women’s education.
    • Fighting against child marriage.
  • Critiqued the patriarchal ideals in Hinduism and the caste system at both societal and familial levels.
• Key Works:
  • The High Caste Hindu Woman: Highlights adversities faced by high-caste women, including child brides and widows.
  • Criticized Hindu sacred texts (Dharma Shastras and Puranas) for depicting women as unworthy of salvation.
• Major Actions:
  • Converted to Christianity, rejecting Hinduism’s patriarchal and casteist foundations.
  • Shifted her focus from upper-caste widows to outcaste child widows and destitute women after the 1896 Maharashtra famine.
  • Established shelter homes ‘Mukti’ and ‘Sharada Sadan’ for women, condemning Hinduism as fundamentally patriarchal.

2. Tarabai Shinde

• Birth: 1850 in an elite Marathi caste family.

• Contribution:

  • Regarded as India’s foremost literary critic against patriarchy and gender stereotypes.
  • Critiqued Hinduism’s unjust practices towards women, especially widows.

• Key Work:

  • Stri-Purush Tulna:
    • Satirical critique of Hindu scriptures like Ramayana and Mahabharata.
    • Questioned the ‘Stri Dharma’ ideology that forces women to submit to their husbands.
    • Criticized Hinduism for imposing different moral standards on men and women.

3. Moving Beyond the Early Feminists

• Inspiration and Organized Movements:

  • Inspired by Ramabai and Tarabai, the women’s movement gained organized form by the 1920s.
  • Formation of All-India Women’s Congress and other women’s organizations.
  • Dominated by upper-caste and elite women, these organizations largely praised Vedic ideals and criticized social evils as results of Muslim influence.

• Rural Radical Actions:

  • Lower-class and peasant women played a more active and radical role.
  • Formation of women’s front of Oudhian Kisan Sabha:
    • Focused on land rights for women.
    • Attacked male polygamy.

Comparison of Feminist Perspectives: Upper-Caste vs. Lower-Caste Women

Aspect	Upper-Caste/Elite Women	Lower-Class/Peasant Women
View of Hinduism	Reformed within the Hindu framework	Critiqued dominant Hindu narratives
Role Models	Sita, Savitri	Reinterpreted stories of Sita, Kaikeyi
Action Style	Formal organizations	Folk songs, tamashas
Critical Approach	Praised Vedic freedom	Questioned caste and patriarchal norms

Expressions of Lower-Class Women’s Critique:

• Popular Folk Songs (‘Kheur’):
  • Bengal songs on Radha-Krishna challenged dominant gender norms.
• ‘Satyashodhak Tamashas’:
  • Early 20th-century Marathi performances questioning patriarchal and caste norms.

• Ramabai and Tarabai: Critiqued Hinduism’s inherent patriarchy and caste system; saw traditional texts as oppressive rather than reformative.
• Beyond Early Feminists: Upper-caste women’s movements remained within Hindu ideals, while lower-class women provided radical reinterpretations, challenging the dominant narratives.

Contributions of Phule and Ambedkar: Dalits' Fight Against Caste Oppression

Overview

• Key Figures: Jyotiba Govindrao Phule and Bhim Rao Ambedkar.
• Focus: Challenged the Hindu social order, caste system, and sought a casteless society.

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A) Jyotiba Phule (1827-1890)

Background:

• Born in Satara, Maharashtra, in a low-caste ‘Mali’ family (traditionally gardeners).
• Shudra varna caste, marginalized and discriminated by upper-caste Hindus.

Major Contributions:

• Critique of Hindu Scriptures: Rejected Vedas and ancient scriptures as tools of Brahmanical domination.
• Formation of Satya Shodhak Samaj (Truth-seeker Society) - 1873:
  • Purpose: Empower lower castes, untouchables, and women.
  • Critiqued Brahmins for perpetuating caste oppression.
• Support for Women’s Rights:
  • Criticized patriarchal norms and supported Ramabai and Tarabai’s feminist ideologies.
  • Education: Established schools for girls and educated his wife, Savitri Bai Phule.
  • Viewed women’s education as a tool to dismantle patriarchy and caste oppression.

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B) Bhimrao Ambedkar (1891-1956)

Background:

• Born in Mhow, Madhya Pradesh, into the Mahar caste (considered untouchables).
• Faced severe discrimination in school and society.

Major Contributions:

• Critique of Hinduism: Developed a critical stance against Hindu religion and caste hierarchy.
• Advocacy for Separate Electorates and Reservations:
  • Sought political representation for untouchables and other minorities.
  • Established the weekly publication Mooknayak (Leader of the Silent) in 1920.

Reservation Policy (Early History):

• Inspired by Phule's 1882 suggestion to the Hunter Commission for reservations.
• 1902: Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj introduced 50% reservation for non-Brahmins in his state.
• 1932 Poona Pact: Ambedkar and Gandhi’s compromise on reserved seats for untouchables, avoiding separate electorates.

Key Actions Against Untouchability:

• Led movements to open public water sources and temples to untouchables.
• Burning of Manusmriti: Symbolic rejection of the Hindu text legitimizing caste discrimination.
• Publication of "Annihilation of Caste" (1936): Condemned Hindu orthodoxy and called for caste abolition.

Conversion to Buddhism:

• Advocated for religious conversion to escape caste oppression.
• Converted to Buddhism towards the end of his life, rejecting Hinduism.

• Phule and Ambedkar laid foundational ideas for a caste-free society by critiquing and opposing dominant Hindu ideologies.
• Their efforts significantly advanced the rights and social status of the lower castes and women in India.

The New Social Movements and the Caste Question

Overview

• Turning Point: The 1970s marked a significant shift in Dalit activism in India.
• New Social Movements (NSM): Focused on caste issues, questioning traditional social, political, and economic systems.
• Backdrop: Collapse of state socialist societies and the Nehruvian development model highlighted a need for new ideologies of liberation.
• Alliances: Low castes, Dalits, women, tribals, and farmers joined forces to address caste oppression, often using Dalit-centric themes.

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Key Themes of Dalit Movements

• Subversion and Inversion:

  • Movements not only resisted but also critiqued and reinterpreted Indian social history from the perspective of the oppressed.
  • Emphasis on reconstructing the past and challenging dominant Hindu and caste narratives.

• Cultural Critique:

  • Rejection of Hinduism: Dalit protests criticized traditional Hindu values, especially those perpetuating caste hierarchy and patriarchy.
  • Feminists and Dalit activists rejected traditional depictions of ideal womanhood (e.g., Sita and Savitri).

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Examples of Dalit and Related Movements

• Women’s Movements (Post-1975):

  • Rejected patriarchal Hindu ideals.
  • Feminists like Madhu Kishwar and Kamla Bhasin invoked Hindu goddesses in response to rising fundamentalism, but Dalit women focused on anti-Brahmanical traditions.
  • Ruth Manorama: Founded the National Federation of Dalit Women, highlighting Brahmanism as a root of women's oppression.

• Adivasi Movements:

  • Waharu Sonavane (1980s): Adivasi poet-activist critiqued non-tribal control over tribal movements, challenging the dominant Aryan tradition.

• Environmental and Farmers’ Movements:

  • Southern Bihar (1980s-90s): Dalits symbolized their cultural roots using figures like Ekalavya in water rights movements.
  • Maharashtra Farmers: Movements like Shetkari Sanghatana followed Phule, using Raja Bali as a symbol of resistance.
  • Karnataka Ryat Sangh: A farmer’s movement reflecting anti-caste and socialist ideals of Ram Manohar Lohia.

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Emergence of New Identity and Subaltern Perspective

• Assertion of Identity: Protests by Dalits, low castes, and ethnic groups represent a new sense of identity and rejection of Brahmanical norms like purity, pollution, and untouchability.
• Revolutionary Changes: These movements are not just about equality; they aim to revolutionize Indian society by forging a vision that challenges higher caste ideologies.
• Subaltern Perspective / Dalit Ideology:
  • Alternative worldview centered on the experiences and struggles of marginalized communities.

• The 1970s marked a critical shift in Indian activism, highlighting caste and social injustice.
• New Social Movements engaged in subverting traditional narratives, establishing a new identity and ideology for marginalized groups.
• These movements aimed at redefining Indian society with equality, rejecting the caste system and dominant cultural traditions.