UNIT 2 CONCEPT OF MORALITY AND MORAL EDUCATION

 Introduction

• Social Malaises:
  • Corruption, violence, terrorism, crime, hatred, bigotry, fundamentalism, pollution, unsustainable development.
• Need for Value-Based Education:
  • Grounded in human values, particularly moral values.
  • Education without human values is incomplete and cannot be considered true education.

Objectives

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• Define Moral Consciousness:
  • Understand its nature and relation with education.
• Differentiate Moral Education from Religious Education:
  • Recognize that the relationship between religious education and morality is not essential.
• Distinguish Content and Form of Morality:
  • Understand the difference between the matter of morality and its manner or form.
• Illustrate Rational Behaviour Criteria:
  • Use Hegel's four criteria of rational behaviour with examples.
• Clarify Concept of Moral Education:
  • Differentiate moral education from moral instruction and moral training.
• State and Explain Moral Judgement Criteria:
  • Understand the criteria of any moral judgement.
• Define Characteristics of a Morally Educated Person:
• Identify the traits of someone who is morally educated.

Moral Consciousness: 

• Natural Endowment:
  • Like intelligence, moral consciousness is inborn but requires a nurturing environment for full development.
• Dual Forces in Human Nature:
  • Self-Preservation: Aggression, anger, jealousy, fear, and sex drive.
  • Social Preservation: Love, affection, sympathy, care, compassion, empathy, consideration, rationality.
  • Freudian Theory:
    • Id: Seeks pleasure, impulsive.
    • Super-Ego: Acts as the moral guardian.
    • Ego: Balances id and super-ego, ensuring socially acceptable behavior.
• Relation to Social Preservation:
  • Moral consciousness is meaningful within a social context.
  • Taking care of others' feelings and emotions as we do our own indicates moral consciousness.
  • Lack of empathy for others' sorrows and sufferings signifies a deficiency in moral consciousness.
• Influence of Environment and Education:
  • Nurturance of moral consciousness depends on environmental forces, including education.
• Role of Religion:
• Some believe religion (places of worship, preaching by religious leaders) is essential for nurturing moral behavior.
• The assertion that morality and religion are intimately related is contentious and will be examined further.

Moral Education vs. Religious Education:

• Authority on Morality:
  • Many people look to religious scriptures (Gita, Bible, Quran, Guru Granth Sahib) and religious leaders (Mathadhish, Shankaracharya, Maulvi, Priest, Granthi) for answers on moral conduct.
• Denominational Schools in India:
  • Some schools link moral education with religious education through daily acts of worship and religious preaching during the "Dharma Shiksha" or religious education period.
• Secular Perspective on Dharma:
  • Dharma: Viewed by many scholars as righteousness in duty, right conduct, thought, and action.
  • In a secular democracy like India, moral education should not be tied to any particular religion.
• School’s Role:
  • Schools should function independently of religious education, focusing on the intellectual, social, and moral development of children.
  • Moral education is crucial but should not be delivered through religious education as it conflicts with the secular nature of education.

Distinction Between Moral Education and Religious Education

• Moral Education:

  • Purpose: Develop moral consciousness and ethical behavior.
  • Approach: Universal values, applicable to all regardless of religious background.
  • Focus: Promotes empathy, compassion, justice, and respect for others.
  • Application: Integrated into daily interactions and broader educational curriculum.
  • Outcome: Prepares students to be responsible, ethical citizens in a diverse society.

• Religious Education:

• Purpose: Teach religious doctrines and practices.
• Approach: Specific to a particular religion or sect.
• Focus: Promotes religious beliefs, rituals, and practices.
• Application: Delivered through religious texts, rituals, and teachings.
• Outcome: Prepares students to follow and practice a particular religion.

Distinction Between Moral Education and Religious Education

• Living Without Religion vs. Living Without Morals:

  • Possible to live without religion, but not without a set of moral values.
  • Many non-religious people still uphold strong moral values.
  • Concept of "secular morality" exists, independent of religion.

• Morality Linked with Religion:

  • Linking morality with religion can be antagonistic to education.
  • Morality from religion is often authoritarian, derived from scriptures or religious leaders.
  • Rational morality is based on reason and social context, not religious dictates.
  • Example: In some contexts, telling a lie might be morally better if it serves a larger human cause.

• Individual Choice in Morality:

  • Morality linked with religion denies individual choice and moral evolution.
  • Moral understanding must evolve to address new challenges.
  • Religious authority can hinder the evolution of moral principles.
  • Example: Use of contraceptives as a moral decision should rely on rational judgement, not religious doctrine.

• Conclusion by Downey and Kelly (1982):

  • Proper morality should be seen as independent of religion.
  • Religious beliefs may stem from moral consciousness, not the other way around.
  • Moral questions should be examined on universally acceptable grounds, independent of religion.

• Living Without Religion vs. Living Without Morals:

  • Secular morality: Independent of religion, based on universal values.
  • Non-religious people can be morally good or even better than religious followers.

• Morality Linked with Religion:

  • Authoritarian nature of religious morality.
  • Rational morality: Based on reason, not religious texts.
  • Example: Sri Rama killing Bali for a greater human cause.

• Individual Choice in Morality:

  • Importance of individual choice and moral evolution.
  • Rational judgement over religious authority for moral decisions.
  • Example: Use of contraceptives based on rational thinking, not religious stance.

• Conclusion by Downey and Kelly (1982):

• Morality should be independent of religion.
• Moral consciousness might influence religious beliefs.
• Examine moral questions on universally acceptable, rational grounds.

Theory of Morality: Objective Theory of Good

Overview

• Objective Theory of Good: Morality seen as objectively valid and fixed.
• Morally Educated Person: Recognizes and acts on objective moral values regardless of circumstances.
• Values Included: Truth, non-violence, not deceiving others, impartiality, respecting elders, etc.
• Educational Purpose: Imparting instruction to instill these values in pupils.

Criticism of Objective Theory

• Authoritarian Nature: Similar to religious morality, which is outdated.
• Inflexibility: Not all virtues are desirable under all circumstances.

Importance of Human Freedom

• Freedom of Thought: Man’s right to his/her own beliefs.
• Moral Freedom: Concept of humans as active agents responsible for their destiny and actions.
• Equity and Justice: Basis of morality; respecting others' freedom as we protect our own.
• Autonomy: Values must be self-chosen, not imposed from outside.

Morality in a Changing Society

• Dynamic Morality: Response to society's changing demands.
• Autonomy of Individuals: Essential for moral development.
• Need for Moral Education: Encourages students to think morally, not just conform to external codes.

• Objective Theory of Good:

  • Morality is seen as fixed and objective.
  • Values include truth, non-violence, impartiality, etc.
  • Education aims to instill these values in students.

• Criticism:

  • Authoritarian, similar to outdated religious morality.
  • Inflexible: Not all virtues are universally desirable.

• Human Freedom:

  • Right to personal beliefs and freedom of thought.
  • Moral freedom: Responsibility for one’s own actions.
  • Basis of morality is equity and justice.
  • Autonomy: Values must be self-chosen.

• Changing Society:

• Morality responds to societal changes.
• Respect for individual autonomy.
• Moral education should foster independent moral thinking.

Language of Morals

Fundamental Question in Ethics

• Highest Good (Summum Bonum): Good in itself or determining principle in ethical systems.
• Different theories in ethics answer this question differently.

Objective Theory of Values

• Objectivists: Certain things/actions are good in themselves.
• Idealists: Assign intrinsic values to concepts like truth, goodness, and beauty, viewing them as absolute and unconditional.

Subjective Theory of Values

• Subjectivists: Nothing is good without conditions; goodness is a subjective perception.
• Utilitarians: Goodness is determined by the greatest amount of happiness produced.
• Existentialists: Goodness is linked to the promotion of freedom and autonomy.

Kant's View

• Good Will: The only thing that is good without conditions, according to Kant.

Principles of Moral Behaviour

• Peters (1966): Principles include impartiality, consideration for others' interests, freedom, respect for persons, and truth-telling.
• Criticism: These principles are not universally applicable under all conditions.

Key Points:

• Form vs. Content: Moral conduct consists of both form (reason behind the action) and content (the action itself).
• Downey and Kelly (1982): Mistake in defining moral worth is focusing on content, not form.
• Kohlberg's Critique: “Bag of virtues approach” - virtues are the content of morality, not its form.

The Form of Morality

Key Concepts

• Virtues as Content: All virtues such as truth, non-violence, respect, etc., are considered the matter or content of morality.
• Form of Morality: Some philosophers, especially positivists, argue that the form of morality is the reasonableness or rationality of behavior.

Rationality and Reasonableness

• Rational Behavior: Any behavior that is rational or reasonable in given circumstances is considered morally good, even if it involves what are typically seen as vices (e.g., lying).
• End Justifies the Means: If the end goal is worthwhile, the means to achieve it do not matter as much.
  • Example: In the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, Shri Ram and Shri Krishna used wrongful means for a worthwhile end to avoid greater evil.

Determining Moral Worth

• Form Over Content: The moral worth of an action is determined by its reasonableness (form) rather than the action itself (content).

Criteria of Rational Behaviour

Key Concepts

To understand rationality in moral human conduct, four criteria from Hegelian dialectics are discussed:

1. Logical Consistency or Coherence
2. Generation of Universals
3. Empirical Evidence or Good Reason
4. Public Intelligibility

Detailed Explanation

1. Logical Consistency or Coherence

   • Internal Consistency: A set of moral beliefs must be internally consistent.
     • Example: It is irrational to expect others to respect your interests if you do not respect theirs.
   • Coherent Behaviour: Behaviour must be coherent and consistent to be considered rational.

2. Generation of Universals

   • Universal Principles: Behaviour should be guided by consistent general principles.
   • Consistency Over Time: One should not change principles arbitrarily without cogent reasons.

3. Empirical Evidence or Good Reason

   • Supporting Evidence: Behaviour must be supported by empirical evidence or good reasons.
   • Irrational Behaviour: Behaviour without valid reasons is considered irrational and non-moral.

4. Public Intelligibility

   • Public Acceptability: Rational behaviour should be understandable and acceptable to the public.
   • Avoiding Rationalization: Rationality is based on objective reasons, not selective justification (e.g., "grapes are sour" rationalization).

Rationality and Moral Code

• Form Over Content: Rationality informs the form or manner of moral codes, not specific principles.
• Coherence and General Principles: Moral codes should be coherent, consistent, and based on general principles that are publicly understood and supported by evidence.

Difference Between Moral Instruction, Moral Training, and Moral Education

Definitions and Distinctions

1. Moral Instruction

   • Definition: Imparting knowledge of specific moral tenets or values.
   • Focus: Direct teaching of moral principles without necessarily fostering autonomy.
   • Example: Teaching children about honesty, respect, and kindness.

2. Moral Training

   • Definition: Developing specific moral skills or behaviors through practice.
   • Focus: Skill development without emphasis on autonomy or critical thinking.
   • Example: Practicing conflict resolution or decision-making skills.

3. Moral Education

   • Definition: Comprehensive development of moral autonomy, critical thinking, and emotional understanding.
   • Focus: Encouraging individuals to think critically and make informed moral decisions.
   • Example: Fostering moral reasoning and empathy through discussion and reflection.

Key Points

• Autonomy Development: Education focuses on developing autonomy where individuals can think and choose independently.
• Cognitive Perspective: Education involves developing a cognitive perspective, understanding the reasons behind moral choices.
• Critical Awareness: Emphasizes critical awareness and the ability to evaluate moral principles.
• Ethical Considerations: Includes the development of empathy and understanding of others' perspectives in moral decisions.

Additional Considerations

• Freedom and Knowledge: Education ensures that freedom of thought is accompanied by informed knowledge.
• Value of Activities: Education values activities pursued for their intrinsic worth, unlike training or indoctrination.
• Human Relations: Recognizes the importance of human emotions and relationships in moral decision-making.

Moral Judgements and Their Criteria

Criteria for Moral Actions

1. Free Will and Responsibility

   • An action is considered moral only if it is performed willingly, without coercion.
   • Responsibility hinges on the individual's voluntary choice and ability to act freely.

2. Intention or Motive

   • The moral quality of an action is determined by the intention behind it.
   • Two aspects of intention:
     • Whether the agent believed the action was right.
     • Whether the action aimed at personal advantage or social benefit.

Kantian Perspective

• Good Will

  • Kant emphasizes that only actions performed with a "good will" are inherently good, regardless of their consequences.
  • Good will entails acting out of moral duty and ethical principles, not for personal gain.

• Criminal Culpability

  • In legal contexts, judges consider free will and intention to ascertain criminal responsibility.
  • Coerced actions or those lacking morally sound intentions are not culpable.

Example Illustration

• Free Eye-Operation Camp
• An ophthalmologist organizes a free eye-operation camp.
• Moral Evaluation: The moral worth of the camp depends on whether it was organized with altruistic intentions (e.g., to help the poor) or for personal gain (e.g., to enhance public reputation).

Moral Consciousness and Education

1. Nature of Morality and Moral Education

   • Moral consciousness is rooted in human feelings of right and wrong and concern for others.
   • Moral education fosters autonomy and critical thinking, distinguishing it from authoritarian religious education.

2. Objective Theory of Morality

   • Initially posited as fixed and unchangeable, but in practice, morality considers changing circumstances, intentions, and contexts.
   • Rejects absolute or ultimate good, supporting autonomy and situational ethics.

3. Form and Content of Moral Behavior

   • Moral behavior consists of both form (rationality) and content (actual actions).
   • Rationality in behavior, as per Hegelian criteria, includes coherence, universality, empirical evidence, and public intelligibility.

4. Distinction Between Moral Instruction, Training, and Education

   • Instruction: Imparts specific moral tenets.
   • Training: Develops skills without autonomy consideration.
   • Education: Fosters autonomy, critical awareness, and cognitive development.

5. Criteria for Moral Judgments

   • Free Will: Actions must be voluntary to be morally assessed.
   • Intention: Moral worth determined by intentions—whether for duty's sake or self-serving reasons.
   • Actions done with goodwill are inherently good regardless of outcomes, contrasting with actions done merely in accordance with duty.