UNIT 9 THEORIES OF GOODNESS

Introduction to Theories of Goodness and Ethical Concepts

Fact Statements vs. Value Judgements:

• Fact Statements: Describe factual information.
  • Example: "He is a tall man," "India is the largest democracy."
• Value Judgements: Express our evaluations or judgments.
  • Example: "Stealing is bad," "Use of atomic bombs is destructive," "Sound mental and physical health is desirable," "This painting is beautiful."

Types of Values:

• Aesthetic Values: Judgments based on beauty or artistic quality.
  • Example: "This painting is beautiful."
• Ethical Values: Judgments based on moral considerations.
  • Example: "Stealing is bad."

Good in Ethics and Aesthetics:

• Aesthetics: Describes the quality of things, phenomena, or individuals.
  • Example: "He is a good athlete."
• Ethics: Describes character or conduct.
  • Example: "She is a good person."

Objectives of the Unit:

1. Discuss Non-Cognitive Theory vs. Naturalistic Theory of Good:

   • Non-Cognitive Theory: Emphasizes emotions, attitudes, and preferences.
   • Naturalistic Theory: Asserts that goodness can be identified with certain natural properties.

2. Clarify Intrinsic and Instrumental Good:

   • Intrinsic Good: Valuable in itself.
   • Instrumental Good: Valuable as a means to an end.

3. Illustrate Hedonism as a Theory of Goodness:

   • Hedonism: Asserts that pleasure is the highest good.

4. Explain the Concept of Ethical Pluralism:

   • Ethical Pluralism: Recognizes multiple, sometimes conflicting, ethical values and principles.

5. Critically Examine the Nature of Knowledge, Self-Realization, and Moral Qualities as Bases for Ethical Pluralism:

• Knowledge: Understanding as a basis for moral decisions.
• Self-Realization: Fulfillment of one’s potential as an ethical goal.
• Moral Qualities: Virtues that form the foundation of ethical behavior.

Understanding the Term 'Good' in Ethics

Different Interpretations of 'Good':

• Ethical Naturalism:

  • Ethical term 'good' can be translated into non-ethical terms without changing the meaning.
  • Example: "It is good to help others" means "I approve of helping others."
  • Focuses on attitudes of approval or disapproval, not the properties of the acts themselves.
  • Critique: Acts are not inherently good or bad; people's approval doesn't determine the morality of an act.

• Utilitarian View:

  • An act is good if it promotes maximum happiness for the maximum number of people in the long run.
  • Consequentialism/Teleological Theories: Goodness is based on the outcomes of actions.
  • Key Idea: "Greatest happiness of the greatest number."
  • Evaluates moral actions based on their contributions to overall good.
  • Focus: Consequences determine rightness or wrongness.

• Deontological Theories:

• Prioritize the right over the good.
• Actions are intrinsically right or wrong, regardless of their consequences.
• Example: Performing one's duty sincerely is right, regardless of the outcomes.
• Focus: Intrinsic nature of actions, not the results they produce.

What Kinds of Things Are Good?

Understanding what kinds of things are good requires distinguishing between subjective and objective values and recognizing the distinction between intrinsic and instrumental values.

1. Subjective vs. Objective Value:

• Subjective Value:

  • Based on personal liking or preference.
  • Example: Preferring chocolate over vanilla.

• Objective Value:

  • Independent of personal preferences, valuable in achieving a goal.
  • Example: Health is valuable even if one undermines it by unhealthy habits.

2. Intrinsic vs. Instrumental Value:

• Intrinsic Value:

  • Valuable in itself, regardless of what it leads to.
  • Example: Happiness, truth, beauty.

• Instrumental Value:

• Valuable as a means to an end.
• Example: Money is valuable because it can buy necessities.

Intrinsic and Instrumental Good

Intrinsic Good:

• Valuable, desirable, worthwhile for its own sake.
• Examples: Happiness, knowledge, honesty, kindness, beauty.

Instrumental Good:

• Good only as a means to an end.
• Examples: Money, which buys material comfort, freedom from fears, happiness, and peace.

Key Points:

• Intrinsic Value:

  • Ethical value an object has in itself or for its own sake.
  • Regarded as an end or end-in-itself.

• Instrumental Value:

  • Value depends on how much it generates intrinsic value.
  • Good as a means to achieve something else desirable.

Difference Between Pleasure and Happiness

• Pleasure:

  • A psychological state, certain kind of consciousness.
  • Sources: Eating, drinking, sexual experience, walking, reading, art, music, conversations.
  • Can be physical (eating, drinking) or mental/spiritual (reading, art).

• Happiness:

• Not synonymous with pleasure.
• Consists of the sum of pleasures.
• One can experience pleasure without being happy, but cannot be happy without experiencing pleasure.
• More conducive sources: Healthy attitude, cheerful disposition over wealth and glamour.

Hedonism: Key Concepts and Points

Definition:

• Hedonism: Normative ethical philosophy where pleasure and happiness constitute the ultimate good.

Core Principles:

• Pleasure as Intrinsically Good: Only pleasure is worth having for its own sake.
• Maximizing Happiness: Something is morally good if it promotes maximum happiness for the maximum number of people in the long run.

Intrinsic vs. Instrumental Value:

• Intrinsic Value: Pleasure and happiness themselves.
• Instrumental Value: Things that lead to pleasure and happiness, like works of art (aesthetic pleasure), and moral virtues (honesty, benevolence).

Examples and Applications:

• Art: Provides pleasant aesthetic experiences, hence intrinsically valuable.
• Bricks and Mortar: Not pleasant by themselves, but have utility in building houses, leading to happiness.
• Moral Qualities: Honesty, benevolence, truth, etc., are instrumentally good as they lead to happiness.

Instrumental Goodness of Knowledge:

• Knowledge is generally good when it contributes to happiness.
• It can be misused (e.g., for creating weapons), making its goodness conditional.

Limitations and Considerations:

• Happiness derived from immoral actions (e.g., a criminal getting away) is not considered good.

Ethical Pluralism: Comprehensive Notes

Definition and Core Ideas:

• Ethical Pluralism: Recognizes multiple intrinsic goods, not limited to pleasure and happiness.
• Hedonism vs. Pluralism: Hedonism views happiness as the sole intrinsic good. Pluralism accepts happiness along with other intrinsic values such as knowledge and moral qualities.

Knowledge:

• Intrinsic Value:
  • Valued for its own sake, not just for the happiness it may bring.
  • Study of subjects like philosophy, mathematics, physics, or biology is pursued to acquire knowledge itself.
• Instrumental Value:
  • Practical benefits, like avoiding dangers (e.g., understanding contagious diseases).
• Hedonist View:
  • Knowledge's value is primarily instrumental, dependent on its happiness potential.
  • Sometimes true knowledge is concealed to prevent frustration, anguish, or anxiety.
  • Knowledge's goodness depends on its potential to promote happiness.

Moral Qualities:

• Intrinsic Worth:
  • Traits like kindness, honesty, truthfulness, benevolence, loyalty, generosity, and goodwill are valued for their own sake.
• Instrumental Value:
  • Hedonists argue these traits are valuable as means to increase happiness.
  • Traits can lead to both good and bad outcomes depending on their use.
  • Examples:
    • Loyalty: Can be destructive if shown by fanatics.
    • Generosity: May perpetuate laziness if misdirected.
    • Truthfulness: Can harm a patient with an incurable disease if it causes distress.
• Pluralist View:
  • Values persist despite bad consequences, prioritizing values over happiness.
  • Happiness achieved through moral qualities is deeper and more satisfying.
  • Traits like kindness, fairness, generosity, goodwill, and wisdom make the world better, not just as instruments for happiness but as valuable in themselves.
  • Exercise of moral virtues is valuable independently of their happiness potential.

Pluralist Arguments:

• Intrinsic Value Despite Consequences:
  • Values of moral qualities persist even with bad outcomes.
  • Prioritizes values over the happiness they cause.
• Sustained Happiness:
  • Happiness achieved through moral qualities is deeper and more satisfying.
• Value of Traits:
  • Traits make the world better, not just as instruments for happiness but as valuable in themselves.

Hedonist Counterarguments:

• Instrumental Value:
  • Without the goal of happiness, virtues seem purposeless.
• Value Justification:
• Questions arise about the purpose and end served by moral qualities if detached from happiness.

Self-Realization:

Definition and Core Ideas:

• Self-Realization: Refers to the growth in awareness and expansion of consciousness, which manifests in two different ways:
  1. Psychological Growth (Self-Actualization):
     • Awakening and manifesting latent human potentialities (ethical, aesthetic, religious).
     • Corresponds to Maslow's concept of self-actualization.
  2. Spiritual Realization:
     • Realization of the self as the synthesizing spiritual center, distinct from the personal conscious self or "I".

Self-Realization According to Proponents:

• Intrinsic Good:
  • The development of man's best capacities as human beings.
  • Full human development through proper realization of capacities.
• Human vs. Animal Capacities:
  • Human capacities (e.g., generosity, truth, non-violence, intellectual abilities) should be realized over animal instincts.
  • Unique human faculties (reason and morality) should be prioritized and realized.
  • Biological capacities are essential but should be controlled by reason and morality.

Aristotle's Perspective:

• Exercising Best Capacities:
  • Focus on capacities unique to humans (rational faculty or reason).
  • Rational and moral capacities distinguish humans from other species.
  • Biological capacities should be subordinated to reason and morality.

Human Code of Ethics:

• Uniqueness of Human Choice:
  • Unlike other animals, humans can choose values and actions appropriate for survival.
• Individual Purpose:
  • Man’s life as the ultimate value; all other values, including happiness, serve this purpose.
  • Man may risk his life if essential human conditions (freedom of thought and actions) are suppressed.

Ayn Rand's Ethical Theory:

• Value and Life:
  • Good is that which is appropriate for the life of man as a rational being.
  • Values arise from the nature of living beings and are necessitated by their distinctive nature.
• Fundamental Alternative:
  • The choice between existence and non-existence (life or death) is the fundamental alternative.
  • Values are possible and necessary due to the existence and needs of living organisms.
• Man's Choice and Knowledge:
• Man must think and choose to acquire knowledge of what is good or evil.
• Holding life as the standard of value requires a code of ethics.

Summary: The Concept of "Good"

1. The Word “Good”:

• Used in various respects: aesthetic, moral (ethical), etc.
• Describes judgments of values and is central to discussions of right/wrong, duty/obligation.

2. Meta-Ethical Theories:

• Ethical Naturalism:
  • Ethical sentences can be translated into non-ethical ones.
  • Example: “This action is right” translates to “I approve of this action” or “This action promotes maximum happiness.”
• Non-Cognitive Views (Emotive Theory):
  • Ethical sentences express the speaker's feelings.
  • No inherent connection to rightness or wrongness.

3. Normative Theories:

• Intrinsic vs. Instrumental Good:
  • Intrinsic Good: Good for its own sake (e.g., happiness, certain moral qualities).
  • Instrumental Good: Good as a means to an end (e.g., tools, knowledge).

4. Key Theories Discussed:

• Hedonism:
  • Pleasure and happiness are considered intrinsic goods.
  • Actions are right if they promote maximum happiness.
• Ethical Pluralism:
  • Multiple things can be intrinsically good (e.g., knowledge, moral qualities like goodwill, loyalty, benevolence).
  • Values like kindness and honesty are valued for their own sake, beyond their contribution to happiness.

5. Critical Examination:

• Each theory is analyzed for strengths and weaknesses.
  • Ethical Naturalism: Strength - Objective translation of ethical terms. Weakness - Might oversimplify complex ethical judgments.
  • Emotive Theory: Strength - Reflects personal attitudes. Weakness - Lacks a framework for objective ethical assessment.
  • Hedonism: Strength - Emphasizes happiness. Weakness - Can be seen as too narrow or overlooking other values.
  • Ethical Pluralism: Strength - Recognizes multiple intrinsic values. Weakness - May lack a unifying principle or be seen as conflicting.