UNIT13 METHODSAND TECHNIQUES

Introduction to Data Collection Methods in Anthropology

In this unit, we'll delve into the various methods used in social and cultural anthropology, including the tools and techniques employed for data collection.

Overview of Data Collection Methods

Anthropologists use a range of methods to collect data, and each method encompasses specific techniques. Understanding these methods is crucial for conducting comprehensive research.

Four Main Methods of Data Collection:

1. Archives, Museums, and Libraries:
   • Primarily used by historians.
   • Sources: Historical documents, artifacts, records.
2. Census and Sample Surveys:
   • Common among economists.
   • Examples: National Sample Surveys, Survey of Industries.
3. Fieldwork and Participant Observation:
   • Core method for anthropologists.
   • Techniques: Observation, interviews, immersion in the community.
4. Experiments and Controlled Studies:
   • Used in various social sciences.
   • Techniques: Structured experiments, control groups.

Triangulation:

• Combining different methods and techniques to compensate for the limitations of each.
• Origin: Geometry.
• Application: Combining methods, theoretical perspectives, and different investigators.

Key Points on Methods

• Archives, Museums, and Libraries:

  • Purpose: Retrieve historical and cultural data.
  • Usage: Analysis of historical context and cultural heritage.

• Census and Sample Surveys:

  • Purpose: Gather statistical data on populations.
  • Usage: Understanding demographic and economic trends.

• Fieldwork and Participant Observation:

  • Purpose: Gain in-depth understanding of a community's way of life.
  • Usage: Detailed ethnographic studies, cultural immersion.

• Experiments and Controlled Studies:

  • Purpose: Test hypotheses in a controlled environment.
  • Usage: Assess behavioral and social patterns.

Combining Methods (Triangulation)

• Benefits:
  • Enhanced Validity: Cross-verification of data from different sources.
  • Comprehensive Insights: Broader perspective by integrating various methods.
• Application:
  • Methodological Triangulation: Combining qualitative and quantitative methods.
  • Theoretical Triangulation: Using multiple theoretical perspectives.
  • Investigator Triangulation: Involving multiple researchers.

Practical Considerations

• Time and Resources: Each method requires different amounts of time and resources.
• Sequential Application: Researchers may need to switch methods during different research phases.

Fieldwork and Data Collection Methods in Anthropology

Fieldwork and data collection are crucial components of anthropological research. This section provides an overview of the methods used to collect data, including fieldwork, surveys, document analysis, and experimentation.

1. Fieldwork

• Definition: Firsthand study of a situation in its natural habitat (in situ study).
• Example: Jane Goodall's ongoing study of chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania, since 1968.
• Duration: Typically intensive and long-term, often not less than one year.
• Purpose: Observe social life throughout the annual cycle, capturing recurring and unique events.
• Advice:
  • Edward Evans-Pritchard suggests a two-year initial fieldwork with a few months' gap between years for reflection and discussion.
  • Writing the first draft of one's work in the field helps rectify misunderstandings.
• Publications: Extensive data collection can lead to multiple publications on different aspects of the society studied.
• Solo Exercise: Fieldwork is generally conducted alone to avoid forming closed groups and to ensure immersion in the community.

2. Survey Method

• Definition: Asking questions at a particular point of time to a group of respondents.
• Types:
  • Trend Study: Different people interviewed over time to observe changes in opinions.
  • Panel Study: Same group of respondents interviewed at different points in time to see changes in their opinions.
• Instrument: Questionnaire, which can be mailed/emailed or administered face-to-face (interview schedule).
• Challenges:
  • Low response rates with mailed questionnaires.
  • Unanswered open-ended questions in mailed questionnaires.

3. Documents

• Definition: Study of existing documents, both written and material artifacts.
• Types:
  • Official Documents: Found in institutions and kept in records, such as during the British period in India.
  • Private Documents: Personal diaries, account books, descriptions of events.
  • Prepared Documents: Accounts written by respondents at the request of the researcher.
• Purpose: Analyze historical and cultural information from secondary data.

4. Experimentation

• Definition: Testing hypotheses in a controlled situation, mainly used in natural and biological sciences, and some social sciences like psychology.
• Design:
  • Ideal Design: Divides subjects into experimental and control groups to compare impacts.
  • Quasi-Experimentation: Adjustments made due to difficulty in controlling external variables and ethical concerns.
• Application: Used in small group studies in sociology.

Tools and Techniques of Data Collection in Anthropology

To understand the different tools and techniques of data collection, let's use the analogy of making a cup of tea. Different types of tea require different tools and preparation methods, just like different research topics require specific tools and techniques for data collection.

Main Tools of Data Collection

1. Observation
2. Interview
3. Life History
4. Case Study
5. Focus Group Discussion

Each tool has various techniques that can be applied based on the research context.

1. Observation

• Definition: Viewing incidents, phenomena, or interactions systematically and contextually.
• Types of Observation:
  • Participant Observation
  • Non-Participant Observation
  • Quasi-Participant Observation

(a) Participant Observation

• Pioneered by: Bronisław Malinowski.
• Approach: Researcher lives with and participates in the community’s daily activities.
• Challenges:
  • Not always feasible in modern contexts like schools or corporate spaces.
  • Researchers may study their own communities.
• Goal: To gain an insider’s view.

(b) Non-Participant Observation

• Approach: Researcher observes from a distance without direct involvement.
• Characteristics:
  • Detached observation.
  • Objective data recording.
• Outcome: Data based on observation without personal experiences.

(c) Quasi-Participant Observation

• Nature: Partial participation due to practical limitations.
• Example: Studying initiation rituals without undergoing the rituals oneself.
• Result: Incomplete but valuable participation.

2. Interview

• Interview Techniques in Anthropology

  Overview

  • Interviewing is a process of social interaction essential for understanding phenomena, incidents, and events.
  • Observation alone is insufficient; interviews link observations with detailed questioning.

  Types of Interviews

  1. Direct Interview

     • Definition: Face-to-face interaction between researcher and informant.
     • Types:
       • Formal Interview:
         • Requires prior appointment and consent.
         • Scheduled time and place.
         • Pre-decided length of interview.
         • Used with key stakeholders like government officials.
       • Informal Interview:
         • Spontaneous and impromptu.
         • Conducted during daily activities or casual interactions.
         • Referred to as "deep hanging out" (Fontein 2014).
     • Advantages:
       • Captures both spoken content and non-verbal cues (facial expressions, emotional responses).
       • Allows for open-ended questions and free flow of ideas.
       • Provides richer, more nuanced data.

  2. Indirect Interview

     • Definition: Conducted without physical presence, using mail, email, video, web, or telephonic means.
     • Applications: Useful when direct interaction is impractical.
     • Advantages: Flexible but may lack the depth of direct interviews.

  Key Points on Interviews

  • Importance of Consent: Essential in both direct and indirect interviews, can be verbal or non-verbal.
  • Non-verbal Cues: Silence, reluctance, and facial expressions provide critical data.
  • Preferred Technique: Direct, open-ended interviews are favored for their depth and richness of data.

3. Life History

• Life History in Anthropology

  Overview

  • Purpose: Reveal the extensive account of a person’s life.
  • Forms: Written or narrated by the person, by others, or both.
  • Focus: Unique characteristics of individuals, sometimes representing group characteristics or way of life.

  Selection Criteria

  • Based on the person’s contribution as a community member.
  • Not necessarily a reputed or famous person.
  • Can be a key informant with relevant knowledge.

  Key Informant

  • Definition: A person (male or female) with knowledge about the research topic.
  • Selection: Usually identified during rapport building when the researcher familiarizes with the community.

  Importance of Life History

  • Provides in-depth understanding.
  • Shows that individuals live within societal norms and values.
  • Unlike historians, anthropologists focus on ordinary persons to understand general culture and daily life.
  • Reflects social and cultural changes impacting individuals.

  Famous Example

  • Pedro Martinez by Oscar Lewis: Life of an ordinary Mexican person and his family.

  Historical Context

  • Developed in American cultural anthropology to address vanishing tribes.
  • Often only a few tribe members were left, making detailed life histories crucial for reconstruction.

4. Case Study

• Case Study in Anthropology

  Overview

  • Pioneer: Herbert Spencer first used case material in ethnographic work.
  • Definition: In-depth research of a particular event, incident, or phenomenon involving a community or group.

  Example: Bhopal Gas Tragedy (3rd December 1984)

  • Study Focus: Aftereffects of the tragedy.
    • Physical/Biological Issues
    • Psychological Issues
    • Medico-Legal Issues

  Key Aspects of Case Studies

  • Homogeneity: Group association with the event and individual relations to it.
  • Human Memory: People remember events relevant to themselves, providing diverse perspectives and levels of understanding.

  Holistic Method

  • Goal: Gain an all-round perspective on a single incidence or event.
  • Extended Case Method:
    • Devised by Max Gluckman and Van Velson.
    • Used for analyzing conflicts and legal disputes.
    • Follows a case/event over a long period to gain insights into structures, norms, and social processes.

5. Focus Group Discussion

• Overview

  • Definition: Interviewing a group of people within the community on a specific topic.
  • Purpose: Gather diverse opinions and insights on the same topic, beneficial for research.

  Composition and Conduct

  • Group Size: 8-10 people; manageable size for effective conversation.
  • Group Dynamics:
    • Small size encourages participation.
    • Large groups may lead to some participants feeling uncomfortable or others dominating the discussion.
  • Group Selection: Heterogeneous group or different stakeholders for diverse perspectives.

  Role of Researcher

  • Observation: Researcher observes and records the session without participating.
  • Moderation: Moderator facilitates the discussion, keeping it on track.

  Applications

  • Goal-Oriented Research: Suitable for specific topics like:
    • Introduction of a polio vaccine in a village.
    • Assessing attitudes toward a new welfare scheme.
  • Not for Quantitative Research: Rarely used for gathering quantitative data.

6. Genealogy in Anthropology

Overview

• Purpose: Tracing the line of descent.
• Importance: Connects past to present, integral to anthropological fieldwork.
• Reveals: Myths and beliefs associated with ancestors and ancestor worship.

Example: Karbi Village Study

• Findings:
• Many family members shared the same names.
• Newborns named only after ancestors for whom the chomangkan ceremony had been performed.
• Chomangkan ceremony is related to ancestor worship and requires significant funds.
• Last chomangkan in the village occurred about twenty years ago (late 1990s).

Interview Schedule and Questionnaire

Overview

• Purpose: Acquire relevant information from informants during an interview.
• Types: Direct interviews can be conducted using structured or unstructured formats.

Interview Schedule

• Definition: Format used by the researcher during an interview.
• Types:
  • Structured:
    • Fixed format of questions.
    • Used for surveys and quantitative data.
    • Example: Census data collection.
  • Unstructured:
    • Flexible format.
    • Used for qualitative data.
    • Example: Life history or case study.

Interview Guide

• Definition: Helps structure basic questions for unstructured interviews.
• Purpose:
  • Maintain flow in conversation.
  • Keep interview focused on the topic.
  • Guide interviewer if the informant deviates from the topic.

Questionnaire

• Definition: Document sent to informants to fill in without the researcher’s presence.
• Usage:
  • Can be used in physical or virtual space.
  • Example: Online surveys on social networking sites.
• Difference from Interview Schedule:
  • Interview schedule: Administered by the interviewer.
  • Questionnaire: Filled by the informant without researcher’s presence.
• Structure:
  • Starts with simple questions, followed by more complex ones.
  • Includes multiple-choice and test questions to assess reliability.
  • Requires literate respondents.