UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY AND TOURISM REVISION NOTES

 Introduction to Tourism Anthropology

Memories of Vacation:

• Scenic beauty, food, sunrise/sunset, historical monuments.
• Captured memories in pictures, shared on social media.

Behind the Scenes of Vacation Planning:

• Searching online for destinations.
• Booking tickets and accommodations.
• Arranging local travel.

Tourism Anthropology:

• Studies the behind-the-scenes activities of tourism.
• Examines the economic, political, and social aspects of tourism.
• Analyzes the cultural impact on both hosts and tourists (guests).

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Anthropology and Tourism: Concepts and Definitions

Defining Anthropology:

What is Anthropology?

• Understanding human lives in time and space.
  • Time: Geological time scale, human evolution, growth, and variation.
  • Space: Ecological and environmental relationships.
• Studies past and present cultures holistically.
• Derived from Greek words: "Anthropos" (human) and "Logos" (study/science).

What Do We Study in Anthropology?

• Emerged as an academic discipline in the early 20th century.
• Four Main Branches:
  1. Physical/Biological Anthropology
  2. Social and Cultural Anthropology
  3. Archaeological Anthropology
  4. Linguistic Anthropology

Key Questions in Anthropology:

1. Who We Are?
   • Study of past and present.
2. How We Came to Be?
   • Origin and evolution.
3. Why We Are the Way We Are?
   • Variations and diversity.

Branches of Anthropology:

1. Physical/Biological Anthropology:

   • Origin, evolution, variation, and development of humans.
   • Genetic makeup and environmental influences.
   • Studies primates for insights into human evolution (primatology).

2. Social and Cultural Anthropology:

   • Studies social institutions and cultural attributes.
   • Objective and subjective understanding of societies and cultures.
   • Focuses on the relative importance of different societies and cultures.

3. Archaeological Anthropology:

   • Reconstructs human past through tools and artifacts.
   • Studies prehistoric periods (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic).
   • Uses absolute and relative dating methods.

4. Linguistic Anthropology:

• Studies languages as mediums of communication.
• Includes verbal, body, and sign languages.
• Preserves and documents disappearing dialects.

Studying Anthropology: Key Points and Methods

Historical Emergence:

• Early Years:

  • Rooted in European exploration and colonization.
  • Early anthropologists, known as "armchair anthropologists," relied on travelers' accounts.
  • Example: "The Golden Bough" by Sir James Frazer (1890).

• Field Science Development:

  • Anthropology established as a field science.
  • Fieldwork became essential for data collection.
  • Bronislaw Malinowski:
    • Work with Trobriand Islanders.
    • Introduced participant observation, interviews, and case studies.
    • Emphasized long-term fieldwork and using local languages.

Fieldwork Significance:

• Understanding Behavior:

  • What people think they ought to do (ideal behavior).
  • What people say they do.
  • What people actually do (actual behavior).

• Data Collection:

  • Insider's view (emic) rather than just objective study.
  • Importance of subjectivity and relativeness.
  • Focus on the present context (here and now).

Definitions of Anthropology:

• American Anthropological Association:

  • "The study of humans, past and present."
  • Integrates social, biological sciences, humanities, and physical sciences.
  • Aims to apply knowledge to solve human problems.

• Wolf (1964):

  • "Less a subject matter than a bond between subject matters."
  • Combines history, literature, natural science, social science.
  • Views anthropology as both scientific and humanistic.

• Herskovits:

  • "Physical anthropology is, in essence, human biology."

• M.N. Srinivas:

  • "Comparative study of human societies, including primitive, civilized, and historic."

Applied Anthropology:

• Uses knowledge from biological, social/cultural, and archaeological studies.
• Aims to solve practical problems.
• Focuses on the correlation between environment and culture.
• Studies the impact on human growth and development.

Defining Tourism: Key Concepts and Perspectives

Historical and Social Context:

• Long history in human cultures.
• Major global industry and developmental tool for third-world countries (Nash and Smith, 1991).

Smith's Definition:

• Tourist: Temporary leisured person voluntarily visiting for change (Smith, 1989).
• Key Elements: Leisure time + discretionary income + positive local sanctions.

Jafari's Definition:

• Tourism: Study of individuals away from usual habitat, industry meeting needs, impact on socio-cultural, economic, and physical environments (Jafari, 1977).

Mathieson and Wall's Perspective:

• Tourism: Multi-faceted phenomenon involving movement and stay in destinations outside usual residence, dynamic, static, and consequential elements (Mathieson and Wall, 1982).

Greenwood's View:

• Tourism: Large-scale movement of goods, services, and people across cultural boundaries (Greenwood, 1989).

Van Hassrel's Elements:

• Four primary elements:
• Travel demand
• Tourism intermediaries
• Destination influences
• Range of impacts (Van Hassrel, 1994).

Postmodern and Humanistic Perspectives:

• Ryan's Definition: Tourism as an experience of place, emphasizing interactions and experiences of both hosts and guests (Ryan, 1991).

Middleton's Business Perspective:

• Tourism: Business sector focusing on customer needs and consumption patterns (Middleton, 1998).

Urry's View on Globalization and Tourism:

• Tourism: Leisure activity opposing regulated work, involves movement to destinations for pleasure-seeking and site gazing (Urry, 1990).

Conclusion:

• Complexity: Tourism intersects with political, natural, economic, and social environments.
• Anthropological Study: Covers diverse aspects and perspectives on tourism.

History of Tourism Anthropology

Emergence and Growth:

• 1960s-1970s: Beginnings of tourism anthropology as a distinct field.
• Contributors: Valene Smith, Malcolm Crick, Dennison Nash, Nelson Graburn, Erik Cohen highlighted tourism's anthropological significance (Smith, 1977; Crick, 1995; Nash, 1977; Graburn, 1977; Cohen, 1974).

Initial Challenges:

• Anthropological reluctance: Tourism perceived initially as too close to traditional anthropological fieldwork (Crick, 1995).

Smith's Influence:

• "Hosts and Guests": Valene Smith's seminal work (1977, 1989) legitimized tourism as an applied area of study within anthropology.

Academic Recognition:

• Journals: Establishment of journals like The Annals of Tourism Research provided scholarly platform for tourism anthropology.

Diverse Themes Explored:

• Philip Pearce: Social psychology of tourism (1982).
• Nelson Graburn: Tourism as escapism or pleasure-seeking (1977).
• Dennison Nash: Impact of tourism on host populations (1981).
• Selwyn: Economic, political, social, and cultural contexts of tourism (1994).
• John Urry: Systematic study of tourist motivations (1990).
• Boissevain: Longitudinal study on commoditization of host cultures (1996).
• Erik Cohen: Typology of tourists (1988).
• Dann: Advocacy for sustainable tourism (1997).

Anthropological Relevance to Tourism:

• Critical Analysis: Focus on human aspects over business perspectives.
• Comprehensive Approach: Examining economic, environmental, and social impacts within globalized contexts.
• Ethnographic Insights: Qualitative study methods uncover human dynamics in tourism.
• Holistic Perspective: Facilitates understanding of cross-cultural encounters and social transactions in tourism.

Current Perspectives:

• Complexity of Tourism: Need for integrated approaches to understand cultural impacts and global-local dynamics shaped by tourism.
• Anthropological Contributions: Essential for unraveling the societal implications of tourism and fostering sustainable practices.

Anthropological Perspectives on Tourism

Emergence and Development:

• 1970s onwards: Anthropological interest in tourism emerges.
• Fit with Anthropological Concerns: Both anthropology and tourism involve humans and culture, focusing on culture contact and change.

Tourism as Leisure Activity:

• Definition: Tourism seen as a form of leisure activity; tourists characterized as leisured travelers (Nash, 1989).
• Transactional Nature: Focus on interactions between tourists and hosts; impacts observed on tourists, hosts, and home cultures (Nash, 1981).

Initial Perceptions and Shifts:

• Initial Concerns: Early studies emphasized one-sided impacts on host societies; perceived as both beneficial and detrimental (Cohen, 1979a).
• Evolution of Views: Insights grew more nuanced; impacts of tourism on local cultures and economies reconsidered (Eadington and Smith, 1992; Honey, 1999; Lindberg, 1991).

Key Anthropological Questions:

• Cross-cultural Meanings: Exploration of work and leisure dynamics cross-culturally (Nash, 1981).
• Intercultural Contact: Dynamics and impacts of interactions between tourists and locals (Nunez, 1989).
• Integration into Tourism Market: Study of how indigenous societies transform within tourism contexts (Mansperger, 1995).

Conceptual Divisions in Studies:

• Origins of Tourism: Inquiry into motivations and patterns of tourism (Adler, 1989; Mac Cannell, 1976; Cohen, 1988).
• Impacts of Tourism: Focus on socio-economic and cultural effects on host communities (Erisman, 1983; Greenwood, 1977; Van den Berghe, 1994).

Impacts on Host Communities:

• Economic Effects: Changes in employment, economic dependence on tourism revenue (Mansperger, 1995).
• Socio-cultural Changes: Commodification of local traditions, shifts in cultural values (Greenwood, 1977; Van den Berghe, 1994).
• Environmental Impacts: Changes in infrastructure, built environment, and environmental degradation (various studies). 

Impact of Tourism

Economic Consequences

• Stimulus for Development: Tourism is a powerful economic agent driving social and economic change.
• Employment and Entrepreneurship: Stimulates employment in service industries such as hospitality, tour guiding, and transportation.
• Shift in Employment Patterns: Draws labor away from agriculture to more lucrative tourism jobs in urban areas.
• Structural Changes: Shifts from agriculture to tourism alter land use patterns and economic structures.
  • Example: Mansperger (1995) observed how Pacific islanders shifted from subsistence activities to tourism-related employment.
  • Example: Rosenberg (1988) documented tourism's impact on agriculture in a French mountain village, where land use shifted to support tourism infrastructure.
• Land Use and Property Prices: Tourism increases land competition, driving up prices and potentially fragmenting land holdings.
  • Impact: Escalating real estate prices pose challenges for locals seeking to buy property.
• Policy Perspectives: Emphasis on tourism's positive economic impacts often overlooks associated costs.
• Challenges Highlighted by Anthropologists:
• High Inflation: Resulting from tourism-driven demand and economic activities.
• Land Speculation: Speculative buying drives up prices, affecting local residents' access to land.
• Overdependence: Vulnerability to fluctuations in tourist arrivals and global economic shifts.
• Seasonal Nature: Uneven income distribution due to tourism's seasonal patterns.

Social Consequences of Tourism

Research Categories

1. Tourist Perspective

   • Focus: Tourists' demand for activities, motivations, attitudes, and purchasing decisions.
   • Impact: Shapes local economies and cultural landscapes based on tourist preferences.

2. Host Perspective

   • Focus: Inhabitants of destination areas, labor involved in tourism, and local organization of tourism industry.
   • Impact: Alters community dynamics, economic activities, and cultural practices.

3. Tourist-Host Interrelationships

   • Focus: Nature of interactions between tourists and hosts, and consequences of these interactions.
   • Impact: Influences cultural exchange, economic opportunities, and social dynamics within host communities.

Social Impacts

• Changes in Value Systems: Tourism introduces new values and influences existing cultural norms.
• Individual Behavior: Altered by interactions with tourists, often leading to cultural adaptation or resistance.
• Family Structures and Relationships: Shifts in roles and relationships due to employment opportunities and cultural exchanges.
• Collective Lifestyles: Transformation influenced by tourism-related economic activities and infrastructural changes.
• Moral Conduct: Evolution in community ethics influenced by exposure to diverse tourist behaviors.
• Traditional Ceremonies: Adaptation or commercialization of rituals to meet tourist expectations.
• Community Organizations: Influenced by economic shifts and tourism-related development.

Tourist-Host Interaction

• Nature of Interaction: Often superficial, confined to tourist ghettos (resorts/hotels), lacks depth and authentic cultural exchange.
• Positive Aspects: Provides employment, economic growth, and cultural enrichment through exposure.
• Negative Aspects: Cultural commodification, exploitation, and disruption of local traditions.
• Factors Influencing Interaction:
  • Length of stay, physical segregation (tourist areas), language barriers, and cultural differences.
• Role of Cultural Brokers:
  • Definition: Multilingual mediators facilitating cultural exchange and managing tourist expectations.
  • Impact: Enhances economic opportunities for locals but can lead to cultural manipulation and change.
• Language Acquisition: Enables economic mobility for locals in tourism-related jobs, affecting social status and community dynamics.

Language and Tourism

Role of Language

• Communication Vehicle: Essential for interactions between tourists and hosts, influencing social dynamics and cultural exchange.
• Cultural Identity: Integral part of social and cultural attributes, reflective of community identity and heritage.

Impact of Tourism on Language

1. Economic Change

   • Effect: Introduction of new tourism-related jobs (e.g., tour guides, interpreters).
   • Outcome: Increases bilingualism among locals who serve as mediators, facilitating interactions without significant cultural identity loss.

2. Demonstration Effect

   • Effect: Tourists' display of economic status and behaviors influences local aspirations.
   • Outcome: Hosts may adopt tourist languages to align with perceived higher status, affecting linguistic loyalty.

3. Direct Social Contact

   • Effect: Direct communication between tourists and locals, especially in service sectors.
   • Outcome: Can lead to reduced usage of local languages as economic pressures favor communication in tourist languages.

Studies and Findings

• White (1974)

  • Focus: Relationship between tourism growth and language change.
  • Model: Identifies three mechanisms through which tourism impacts language:
    • Economic change
    • Demonstration effect
    • Direct social contact

• Butler (1978)

  • Study: Rural Scotland case study.
  • Finding: Tourism displaces indigenous languages, especially in areas heavily dependent on tourism infrastructure like hotels.

• Cohen and Cooper (1986)

  • Analysis: Links language change to socio-economic characteristics and nature of tourist-host relationships.
  • Insight: Emphasizes power dynamics and education levels influencing linguistic shifts.

Anthropological Perspective

• Power Relationships: Reflects unequal power dynamics between tourists and locals.
• Educational Influence: Impact of education levels on linguistic interactions and changes.
• Tourist Dispersal: Extent of tourist integration into local communities affects language usage patterns.

Conclusion

• Need for Further Research: Comprehensive studies required across diverse cultural and linguistic contexts to fully grasp contemporary tourism's profound impacts on host populations.

Summary:  INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY AND TOURISM

Introduction to Anthropology and Tourism

• Anthropological Focus: Study of humans in cultural and social contexts.
• Tourism Perspective: Analyzed anthropologically as a relational and cultural phenomenon.

Anthropological Analysis of Tourism

• Human Activity: Examines motivations and actions of tourists and hosts.
• Impact Assessment: Studies the effects of cultural and social encounters between tourists and host societies.

Positive Aspects of Tourism

• Benign Interaction: Unlike other forms of contact, tourism generally involves peaceful and mutually beneficial interactions.
• Tourist Motivations: Seek pleasure and knowledge.
• Host Motivations: Primarily interested in economic benefits, often tourism-dependent for livelihood.

Negative Impacts of Tourism

• Unintended Consequences: Such as prostitution, breakdown of local family structures, economic inflation due to tourist demand.

Advantages of Anthropological Approach

• Methodological Suitability: Depth and qualitative analysis reveal hidden factors not apparent on the surface.
• Field-Based Studies: Essential for uncovering nuanced aspects of tourism impacts.

Conclusion

• Holistic Understanding: Anthropology provides insights into the complexities of tourism beyond economic impacts, exploring cultural, social, and environmental dimensions.
• Need for Comprehensive Analysis: Emphasizes the importance of thorough research to mitigate negative impacts and enhance positive outcomes in tourism development.