UNIT 2 TOURIST AND TOURISM REVISION NOTES

 Introduction to Tourism and Anthropology

Tourism Overview

• Definition: Tourism involves visiting places away from daily life to create memorable experiences.
• Purpose: Provides a break from routine, offering rejuvenation and revitalization.

Relation with Anthropology

• Common Ground: Both anthropologists and tourists explore different cultures and social relationships.
• Distinctions:
  • Anthropologists: Long-term, academic focus.
  • Tourists: Short-term, leisure focus.

Understanding Tourism

Concept of Tourism

• Modern Ritual: Described by MacCannell (1976) as a way to escape daily life.
• Purpose: To rejuvenate and meet mental, expressive, and cultural needs (Graburn, 1983).

Definition of a Tourist

• Smith (1977): A temporarily leisured person visiting a place for a change.
• Link (2008): Travels 80+ km from home for 24+ hours for business, pleasure, or other reasons.
• UNWTO (1995): Categorizes tourists into:
  1. Domestic: Traveling within their own country.
  2. Inbound: Non-residents traveling within a country.
  3. Outbound: Residents traveling to another country.

Types of Tourism

Categories of Tourists

• Local: Within the local area.
• Regional: Within the broader region.
• International: Across countries.

Hospitality in Tourism

Hospitality Definition

• Discover Hospitality (2015): The business of making people feel welcome and relaxed.
• Hospitality Industry Components:
• Accommodation
• Food and Beverage
• Collective Travel (hotels, restaurants, tour agents, logistics)

Types of Tourism and Tourist

Tourism Classification

Tourism can be categorized based on various factors including region, duration, purpose, nationality, season, and the number of tourists. Here’s a comprehensive breakdown:

1. Region

   • Domestic Tourism: Traveling within one’s home country.
   • International Tourism: Traveling abroad to experience new cultures and traditions.

2. Geographic Criterion (NAICS)

   • Mountain Tourism
   • Sea-Beach Tourism
   • Archaeological Sites Tourism

3. Purpose of Journey

   • Pilgrimage
   • Visiting Relatives
   • Medical Tourism
   • Conference Attendance

Typologies of Tourism

Poser (1939)

• Transit Tourism
• Summer Relaxation
• Winter Sports
• Short Distance Relaxation

Hunziker and Krapf (1941)

• Travel for Rest and Treatment
• Pilgrimage
• Scientific Knowledge

1965-1970 Classification

• Recreational Tourism
• Therapy
• Visiting Relatives
• Reduced Distance Relaxation
• Transit Tourism
• Professional Tourism

Psychographic Characteristics (Plog 2001)

• Dependable Tourists: Travel less.
• Venturesome Tourists: Travel more.

Forms of Tourism

1. Initial Area and Destination

   • Domestic Tourism
   • International Tourism

2. Number of Participants

   • Individual Tourism
   • Group Tourism

3. Organizational Criterion

   • Organized Tourism
   • Unorganized Tourism
   • Semi-Organized Tourism

4. Season

   • Continuous Tourism
   • Discontinuous Tourism

5. Duration

   • Long Period
   • Long Duration
   • Reduced Duration

6. Transportation Availability

   • Train
   • Ship/Boat/Cruise Ship
   • Aeroplane
   • Local Transport
   • Cycling/Walking

7. Social Criterion

   • Private Tourism
   • Social Tourism

8. Age and Occupation

   • Youth Tourism
   • Adult Tourism
   • Older Generation Tourism

9. Type of Destination

• Mountains
• Beaches
• Wildlife Sanctuary
• Jungle Safari
• Trekking/Rafting (River)

Types of Tourism: Pilgrimage or Religious Tourism

Overview

• Significance: Pilgrimage or religious tourism is a prominent type of tourism where individuals travel to sacred sites for religious reasons.
• Anthropological Insight: Anthropologists and sociologists have long studied religion, rituals, and sacred spaces. Durkheim’s theory highlights that even the simplest religions have rituals that promote social solidarity.

Theoretical Framework

• Durkheim (1912): Rituals in religion celebrate society and create social solidarity.
• MacCannell (1976): Tourism is seen as a modern ritual reflecting societal differentiation.
• Van Gennep’s Rites de Passage:
  1. Separation: From daily life.
  2. Liminality: Transitional stage where one adopts a new role.
  3. Reincorporation: Return to normal life post-ritual.

Application in Tourism

• Turner’s Liminality: Particularly relevant for religious pilgrimages. The journey involves:
  1. Separation: Leaving daily routine.
  2. Liminal Period: A contemplative, often ascetic stage.
  3. Reincorporation: Returning to daily life post-pilgrimage.

Examples of Pilgrimages

• Mecca (Hajj): Muslims undertake a spiritual journey.
• Kumbh Mela: Hindus participate in extensive preparations including fasting and self-purification.

Liminality vs. Liminoid

• Liminality: Strictly observed in religious pilgrimages.
• Liminoid: More relaxed, seen in secular tourism and leisure activities.

Historical and Contemporary Pilgrimages

• Traditional Pilgrimages: To cities, shrines, rivers, mountains (e.g., Lourdes in France, Fatima in Portugal).
• Secular and Cemetery Tourism:
• Sacredness in Secular Events: Sites of political or historical significance.
• Examples: Lenin’s tomb, War Cemeteries in Europe, Berlin Wall.

Cemetery Tourism

Concept:

• Transformation of Death: Turned into touristic events.
• Empathetic Connection: Tourists emotionally connect with the host culture's rituals and experiences of death.

Examples:

• Pompei: Ancient city buried under volcanic ash.
• Taj Mahal: Monument dedicated to the dead in India.
• Pyramids of Egypt: Ancient tombs attracting millions of tourists.
• Holocaust Museum: Washington DC, exploring Jewish trauma.

Academic Insight:

• Venbrux (2010): Explored guest-host relationships in cemetery tourism.

Myth and Legend-Based Sacred Spaces:

• Myths and Legends: Sacred sites formed by narratives (e.g., Virgin Mary sightings, Kurukshetra battle site).
• Faith-Based Pilgrimages: Not strictly spiritual, but significant for cultural and emotional reasons.

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Eco and Nature Tourism

Definition:

• Natural Beauty and Culture: Visiting places known for natural beauty and cultural practices that sustain the environment.

Key Elements:

• Sustainable Practices: Ensuring ecological balance.
• Indigenous Relationship: Understanding indigenous tribes' relationship with nature.

Case Study:

• Sofield (2002): Studied Australian Aboriginal Ecotourism in the Wet Tropics Rainforest of Queensland.
  • Perfect Partnership: Between indigenous communities and the rainforest.

Challenges and Solutions:

• Negative Impacts: Tourism can jeopardize the nature-culture relationship.
• Rejuvenation: Dying cultures and threatened environments can benefit from tourism.
• Local Authority: Empowering local communities to manage and present their culture.

Types of Tourism

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Wildlife Tourism

• Nature Interaction: Involves visiting wildlife sanctuaries, trekking, bird watching.
• Environmental Responsibility: Minimal environmental impact, economically beneficial to local communities.
• Examples:
  • India: Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary, Keolodeo Ghana National Park, Corbett National Park, Gir, Kaziranga.
  • Himalayan Region: Eco-tourism projects like trekking and river rafting.

Leisure Tourism

• Urban Focus: Primarily for urban populations seeking relief from stress.
• Incentives: Leave travel concession (LTC), office-sponsored vacations.
• Considerations: Proximity, climate, activities, income level, age, and gender compatibility.
• Preferences:
  • Elderly: Natural resorts, calm environments.
  • Youth: Amusement resorts, adventure activities.
  • Women: Places with good shopping opportunities.

Adventure Tourism

• Exploration: Remote areas, exotic locales, difficult terrains.
• Activities: Bungee jumping, hot air balloon rides, paragliding.
• Growth: Niche in India, promising in Jammu and Kashmir, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Meghalaya, Rishikesh.
• Safety Concerns: Highlighted by Adventure Tour Operators Association of India (ATOAI).

Medical or Healthcare Tourism

• Historical Roots: One of the oldest forms of tourism.
• Reasons: Pollution, sedentary lifestyles, stress.
• Medical Services: Prophylactic and therapeutic treatments, cosmetic surgery, specialized treatments.
• India's Attraction: Cost-effective, superior quality healthcare. Chennai as a major hub.
• Economic Impact: Expected value around US $3 billion by 2020.

Business Tourism

• Purpose: Attending conferences, exhibitions, business events.
• Combination: Business activities with opportunities for enjoyment and sightseeing.
• Example: International Congress of the International Union of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences (IUAES).

Political Tourism

• Visits for Political Ends: Places of strategic importance.
• Examples:
  • Israel-Palestine: Volunteers engaged in peace processes, graffiti in Israel.
  • Belfast: 'Peace Wall', communal violence history, peace marches.

Cultural and Heritage Tourism

• Landmarks and Festivals: Historical and aesthetic landmarks, cultural festivals, ceremonies.
• Examples:
  • India: Taj Mahal.
  • Festivals: Carnival in Brazil, Tomatina festival in Spain.
  • Activities: Theater, music festivals, museums, archaeological sites.
  • Rural Tourism: Folk traditions, ethnographic interests.

Visiting Tourism

• Relatives and Acquaintances: Common practice in India, especially during vacations.
• Characteristics: Lower mobility, longer stays, typically not reliant on tourist services.
• Cultural Significance: Example of goddess Durga visiting her maternal home celebrated as Durga Puja in Bengal.

History of Tourism Study

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Origins and Definitions

• Hospitality:
  • Origin: 14th century
  • Derived from Latin "hospes" (guest, host, foreigner)
• Tourism:
  • First appeared in print: 1772
  • Derived from Greek and Latin words for "circle" and "turn" (tour = circling away and returning home)

Historical Evolution

• Ancient to 17th Century:
  • Travel reserved for royalty and upper classes
  • "Grand Tour": European travel for elite young men (Ancient Rome to 17th century)
• Middle Ages:
  • Religious pilgrimages encouraged by many societies

Significant Developments

• 1960s:
  • Increase in travel companies, leading to competition and mass tourism
  • Introduction of new destinations and holiday modes

Interruptions in Growth

• World Wars:
  • World War I (1914-1918)
  • World War II (1939-1945)
• Economic Depression:
  • Great Depression (1930s)
• 21st Century Events:
  • 9/11 Attacks (2001)
  • Iraq War
  • Global terrorist attacks
  • Health scares: Ebola, SARS, BSE, West Nile virus
  • Easter Sunday church attacks in Sri Lanka (2019)
  • COVID-19 Pandemic (2020)

Technological Shifts

• Internet Era:
  • 2000s: Rise of online travel bookings
  • 2014: Expedia's expansion (Hotels.com, Hotwire group, Trivago, Expedia Cruise Ship Centers)

Economic Impact

• UNWTO Declaration (2012):
• Tourism as a tool for economic rebuilding
• Key export and labor-intensive industry

Tourism and Migration

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Impact of Globalization

• Significance:
  • Growth in migration and tourism: Key manifestations of globalization
• Contributions:
  • Social and Economic:
    • Cultural enrichment of destination countries
    • Enhanced tourism product
    • Labor provision for travel, tourism, hospitality, and catering sectors

Case Studies and Research

• UNWTO Studies:
  • Links between tourism and migration (C. M. Hall & A. M. Williams, 2013)
  • Interest in tourism geographers

Tourism Demand and Migration

• Migration as a Generator:
  • Two-way flow of expatriates visiting their country of origin
• Labor Market:
  • Unskilled labor common in tourism jobs
  • Differentiation by gender in migration streams

Economic and Social Benefits

• Job Creation:
  • Tourism as an alternative to migration
  • Vehicle to alleviate poverty in struggling economies
  • Migrants’ remittances and tourism income enhance community-level projects and infrastructure
• Community Impact:
  • Improved income sources lead to better education and health
  • Employment encourages younger people to stay in rural areas
  • Rural communities value conservation for sustainable development

Challenges and Opportunities

• Economic Migrants:
  • Reduction in numbers due to job creation in tourism
  • Increase in East European migrants willing to do DAD jobs (Dirty, Antisocial, Dangerous)
• Contributions:
  • Remittances, SMEs development, knowledge transfers
• Institutional Changes:
  • Need to harness economic benefits
  • Improve social rights and inclusion of migrant workers
• Cultural Products:
  • Migrants create new cultural products in developed countries
• Immigration Restrictions:
  • Limitations impact tourist development
• Brain Drain:
  • Issues of skill drain due to migration

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Tourism and Colonial Exploration

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Historical Context

• Colonization Era:
  • European colonization in the early 19th century: Turning point in tourism history
• Cultural Exploration:
  • Westerners exploring different cultures in the East sparked tourism interest

Colonial Impacts on Tourism

• Spatial Mastery:
  • Division of space by colonial states
  • Accessibility for intervention, habitation, and exploitation
  • Symbol of territorial appropriation and control

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Imagined and Remembered Journeys

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Concept of Memory

• Mental Constructions:
  • Memories as short time slices from experience
  • Contain inferences and details from past experiences

Types of Journeys

• Physical and Imagined:
  • Physical journeys change perspectives on self and world
  • Imagined journeys offer similar transformative experiences

Reflective Questions

• How does the journey (physical or imagined) impact our self-perception?
• What are the broader implications of these journeys on our understanding of the world?