UNIT 4 SOCIETY

 Introduction to Anthropology and Society

Central Concepts

• Society:

  • Central to anthropology and sociology.
  • Found even at the level of sub-humans (primates like monkeys and chimpanzees).
  • Distinguishes humans due to the presence of culture.
  • Characterizes humans as 'beings with culture'.

• Culture:

  • Essential for understanding human beings.
  • Dynamics of society and culture are interconnected.
  • Involves learned behaviors, beliefs, and customs.

Key Attributes of Society

1. Group:

   • A collection of individuals interacting with each other.
   • Can be formal or informal.

2. Association:

   • Organized group with a specific purpose or activity.
   • Example: clubs, organizations.

3. Community:

   • Group of people living in the same place or having a common characteristic.
   • Shares common values and responsibilities.

4. Tribe:

   • Social division in traditional societies.
   • Consists of families or communities linked by social, economic, religious, or blood ties.

5. Caste:

   • Hereditary classes in Hindu society.
   • Defined by social status and occupation.

6. Status and Role:

   • Status: Position or rank of a person within society.
   • Role: Expected behavior associated with a particular status.

7. Social Stratification:

   • Hierarchical arrangement of individuals into divisions of power and wealth within a society.
   • Examples: class, caste, race.

Relationship Between Society and Culture

• Society and culture are interdependent.
• Culture shapes societal structures and vice versa.
• To understand society, one must study its culture.

Relationship Between Social and Cultural Anthropology

Key Concepts

• Society:

  • Central to anthropology and sociology.
  • Present at sub-human levels (primates).
  • Human societies distinguished by culture.
  • Involves relationships among individuals.

• Culture:

  • Unique to human beings.
  • Involves customs, practices, behaviors, beliefs, and values.
  • Passed down through generations.

Human vs. Non-Human Society

• Non-Human Society:

  • Generally without culture.
  • Example: Birds' nests remain the same over generations due to instincts.
  • Changes only with genetic material changes.

• Human Society:

  • Characterized by dynamic cultural evolution.
  • Culture changes independently of genetic factors.

Anthropological Perspective

• Culture in Human Beings:

  • Found only among humans.
  • No human society exists without culture.
  • Bronislaw Malinowski: "Culture is uniquely human."

• Society vs. Culture:

  • Society: Focus on relationships and populations.
  • Culture: Customs, practices, and ways of living.
  • Example: Mother-child relationship is social, but behavior and customs are cultural.

Academic Debate

• American Anthropology:

  • Emphasized the centrality of culture.
  • Robert Lowie: Culture is as central to anthropology as zero to mathematics.
  • Termed as 'Cultural Anthropology'.

• British Anthropology:

  • Emphasized social structure.
  • Influenced by Émile Durkheim.
  • Termed as 'Social Anthropology'.
  • Key Figure: A.R. Radcliffe-Brown.

Unified Perspective

• Clifford Geertz:

  • Society and culture are abstractions from social life.
  • Both are integral and interdependent.
  • Human beings can't live without culture; culture manifests through social relationships.

• Contemporary View:

• Term 'Socio-Cultural Anthropology' combines both aspects.
• Equal importance to society and culture.

Society:

Definition and Origin

• Origin: The word 'society' comes from the Latin word socius, meaning 'sharing'.
• Concept: Society involves individuals sharing relationships.
• Empirical and Abstract:
  • Empirical: Society is a congregation of individuals.
  • Abstract: A construct to understand and analyze human behavior.

Characteristics of Society

• Individuals: Solitary beings capable of internalizing social values, norms, and technologies.
• Persons: Socialized human beings who have learned the shared ways of living.
• Interpersonal Relationships: Constitute the basic material of society.
• Aristotle's View: "Man is a political (social) animal" – Humans inherently live together.

Distinguishing Society from Other Congregations

• Crowd/Mob: An aggregation of individuals that disperses when the stimulus is gone.
• Society: Endures over time, creating solidarity among members.

Features of Society

• Territory Attachment: Members have some attachment to their territory, which they collectively defend.
• Division of Labour: Different tasks and activities are entrusted to different units.
• Groups: Society is divided into smaller entities called groups.

Group: 

Organic Analogy

• Comparison to Organism: Society is compared to an organism.
  • Divisions: Society → Communities → Groups → Individuals
  • Basic Unit: Individual (Person) - cannot survive in isolation.
  • Group: A set of relationships between individuals.

Importance of Groups

• George Homans: Called a group a 'social brick'.
• Community: Results from a collection of groups.

Primary and Secondary Groups

• C.S. Cooley's Contribution:

  • Primary Group:

    • Small group (≤ 25 individuals) with frequent interactions and a sense of unity.
    • Examples: Family, Peer group, Neighbourhood.
    • Role: Crucial in socialization.

  • Secondary Group:

    • Larger group with indirect, goal-oriented interactions.
    • Examples: Workplace, Organizations.
    • Characteristics: Temporary, means-to-end interactions.

Other Classifications of Groups

• W.G. Sumner's Classification:

  • In-Groups: Members with a sense of 'we-ness'.
  • Out-Groups: Non-members, considered outsiders.

• Reference Group:

• Group emulated by individuals.
• Useful in understanding social mobility (upward and downward).

Association:

Concept and Definition

• Association: Created by individuals for specific purposes, known as 'special purpose groups'.
  • Importance: Territory and kinship are not crucial.
  • Types:
    • Voluntary Association: Freedom to join.
    • Non-Voluntary Association: Mandatory membership (e.g., compulsory military service in Singapore).

Examples and Membership

• Voluntary vs Non-Voluntary:
  • Voluntary: Individuals choose to join (e.g., teachers' association, political parties).
  • Non-Voluntary: Mandatory membership (e.g., compulsory military service).
• Caste Group vs Caste Association:
  • Caste Group: Membership by birth (ascriptive).
  • Caste Association: Voluntary membership aimed at furthering interests of caste members.

Characteristics and Types

• Associations: Found in all societies, both traditional and modern.
  • Sodalities: Anthropological term for associations in traditional societies (e.g., age sets, secret societies).
• Associational Groups: Some scholars consider associations a type of group with a specific purpose.

Community: 

Concept and Definition

• Community: Collection of several groups with specific characteristics.
• Distinction: Ferdinand Tönnies differentiates between:
  • Gemeinschaft (Community): Closely integrated entity.
  • Gesellschaft (Society): Larger, more impersonal association.

Characteristics of Community

• Common Sentiments: Members share common feelings and a sense of belonging.
• Common Territory: Shared by members (according to MacIver and Page), though not always applicable, especially after migration.
• De-territorialised Communities: Can still share common sentiments despite relocating.

Examples and Classifications

• True Communities: Villages, tribal settlements, urban neighborhoods.
• Borderline Communities: Boarding schools, monasteries, nunneries, prisons.
• Difference: Borderline communities do not reproduce biologically and have mechanisms for continuity (members leave, retire, die, or are freed).

Tribe and Caste: 

Tribe

• Definition: Community of families sharing territory, language, culture, religion, and lifestyle.
• Autonomy: Politically autonomous with internal dispute resolution.
• Cultural Isolate: Often perceived as isolated, maintaining distinct culture resilient to external influences.
• Interdependence: Despite isolation, tribes have varying degrees of relations with neighboring communities.

Caste

• Definition: Social organization principle in Hindu South Asia.
• Structural Principle: Integral to Hinduism, legitimized by religious texts (Rig Veda).
• Occupational Division: Each caste has designated functions, occupational roles are fixed.
• Endogamy: Marriage within caste boundaries, ensuring social purity and continuity.

Comparison and Continuum

• Tribe vs Caste:
• Egalitarian vs Hierarchical: Tribes are more egalitarian; castes are hierarchical.
• Tribal to Caste and Vice Versa: Some tribes have assimilated into caste systems, and vice versa, known as the tribe-caste continuum.

Status and Role: 

Definition and Concept

• Status: Social position an individual occupies in an interactive situation.
• Role: Behavior an individual performs based on the status they occupy.
• Dynamic Relationship: Status defines the position; role is the behavior enacted within that position.

Ralph Linton's Contribution

• Status vs Role:
  • Status: Static position in society (e.g., teacher, client, passenger).
  • Role: Dynamic aspect of status, actual behavior performed (e.g., teaching, banking, commuting).

Types of Status

• Ascribed Status: Given at birth, such as caste, clan, gender.
• Achieved Status: Attained through competition or personal effort, like education, occupation.

Importance and Impact

• Social Evaluation: Individuals judged based on how well they fulfill their roles (e.g., good teacher, responsible client).
• Rights and Duties: Each status entails specific rights over others and duties to perform.

Influence on Opportunities

• Social Mobility: Ascribed statuses can affect opportunities (e.g., education, career).
• Societal Context: Traditional societies emphasize ascribed statuses; modern societies prioritize achieved statuses.

Social Stratification: 

Definition and Concept

• Social Stratification: Division of society into layers (strata) based on unequal distribution of resources and power.
• Inequality vs Stratification: Not all inequalities (e.g., age, gender) are forms of stratification; stratification specifically refers to structured social inequality.

Principles of Social Stratification

1. Status

   • Definition: Based on lifestyles and social prestige.
   • Example: Caste system where Brahmins have higher status than other castes.

2. Class

   • Definition: Based on economic factors and control over resources.
   • Marxist View: Primarily owners (bourgeoisie) vs non-owners (proletariat).
   • Weberian View: Includes market position (class situation) and economic power.

3. Political Power

   • Definition: Control over decision-making and authority.
   • Marxist Perspective: Linked to economic control; ruling class concept.
   • Weberian Perspective: Power can be independent of economic class.

Intersections and Overlaps

• Cumulative Inequality: When individuals or groups hold high positions in all three aspects (status, class, power).
• Dispersed Inequality: When positions in one aspect (e.g., status) do not correspond with positions in others (e.g., class, power).

Historical and Societal Examples

• Example: André Béteille's study of Sripuram village in South India illustrates a shift from cumulative to dispersed inequality.
• Initially, Brahmins held land and political power.
• Non-Brahmin movements led to changes where land ownership shifted, dispersing inequalities across status, class, and power hierarchies.

Relationship Between Society and Culture

Definition and Significance

• Culture Definition: M.J. Herskovits defines culture as the "man-made part of environment," a system of knowledge created collectively over generations.
• Learned and Transmitted: Culture is learned and transmitted intergenerationally, with each generation contributing and modifying it gradually.
• Enculturation: Process by which individuals learn and internalize culture over time.

Culture in Action

• Dynamic Nature: Culture changes slowly through collective and individual actions unless influenced by external forces.
• Imbibing Culture: Members of a society imbibe and perpetuate its culture through enculturation.

Role in Society

• Foundation of Social Life: Culture provides the framework within which social life unfolds, shaping behaviors, norms, and values.
• Individual and Society: Individuals internalize culture and manifest it through their actions, thereby shaping social interactions and structures.