UNIT5 CULTURE

 Introduction to Culture

• Layman's Perception vs. Anthropological Definition

  • Layman's term: Culture often refers to refined behavior, good taste in arts, manners, and etiquettes.
  • Anthropological definition: Culture encompasses all behaviors and represents the way of life of people.

• Anthropological Perspective on Culture

  • Culture in anthropology is the study of people’s way of life, including everyday practices, beliefs, customs, and social norms.
  • It emphasizes understanding societies without judgmental terms like "uncultured".

• Meaning of Culture

  • Culture is integral to every society, whether simple or complex, and distinguishes one society from another.
  • It includes both material (artifacts, tools) and non-material aspects (beliefs, rituals).

• Purpose of Studying Culture

  • Anthropology focuses on understanding how culture shapes human behavior, identity, and social interactions.
  • Helps in appreciating diversity and uniqueness of different cultures worldwide.

• Definitions of Culture by Anthropologists

  • Various definitions have evolved:
    • Edward Tylor: Culture is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."
    • Franz Boas: Emphasized cultural relativism, studying cultures without imposing external values.
    • Clifford Geertz: Culture is "a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life."

• Attributes of Culture

  • Learned and Shared: Culture is acquired through enculturation (learning from society) and shared among members.
  • Dynamic and Adaptive: Culture changes over time due to internal developments and external influences.
  • Symbolic and Meaningful: Uses symbols and rituals to convey meaning and social norms.

• Conclusion

• Culture is fundamental to anthropology, offering insights into human societies and their evolution.
• Each culture is unique and contributes to understanding human diversity globally.

Culture: Meaning and Characteristics

• Origin and Definition

  • Derived from Latin 'cultura', meaning 'to tend' or 'to cultivate'. Refers to the way of life of a group of people.
  • Encompasses all human activities and behaviors.

• Unique to Human Society

  • Culture is unique to humans due to our ability to learn and transmit behaviors consciously.
  • Unlike animals, humans understand the moral and symbolic aspects of behaviors.

• Attributes Making Culture Unique

  • Biological Evolution: Features like opposable thumbs, bipedal locomotion, and increased cranial capacity enable tool use and complex social interactions.
  • Symbolic Behavior: Ability to create and communicate through symbols, especially language, distinguishes human culture.

• Universality of Culture

  • Basic human needs and capacities lead to similar cultural institutions across societies.
  • Examples include family, marriage, and tools like handaxes found globally, reflecting shared human capacities.

• Not Genetically Inherited

  • Culture is learned, not biologically transmitted.
  • Example: A child raised in Japan by Japanese parents adopts Japanese language and customs.

• Static yet Dynamic Nature

• Core aspects like family and religion remain stable over time.
• Culture changes through acculturation, diffusion, and migration, adapting to new circumstances and influences.
• Example: Shifts in working hours and weekend activities in Indian society due to globalization.

Definitions of Culture

Edward Burnett Tylor's Definition

• Concept: Tylor's concept of culture is detailed in his book "Primitive Culture" (1871).
• Definition: “Culture or Civilization, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society.”
• Key Points:
  • Complex Whole: Culture consists of both tangible (material) and intangible (non-material) aspects.
  • Capabilities Acquired: Culture is learned, not inherited genetically.
  • Member of Society: Culture is learned within a social context, not in isolation.

Tylor's Explanation

• Complex Whole:
  • Tangible Aspects: Observable elements like dress, food habits, and rituals.
  • Intangible Aspects: Non-observable elements like knowledge, values, and beliefs.
  • Examples: Dress patterns, eating habits, rituals.
• Capabilities Acquired:
  • Culture is transmitted through learning and symbols, not genetics.
  • Example: An Indian child raised in Japan would learn Japanese culture.
• Member of Society:
  • Culture is learned in a social context, as demonstrated by fictional characters like Tarzan and Mowgli.

Herskovits's Definition

• Concept: Herskovits emphasized the human-nature relationship in culture.
• Definition: “Culture is the man-made part of the environment.”
• Key Points:
  • Material Culture: Tangible objects made from natural resources (e.g., bamboo in Northeast India).
  • Non-material Culture: Ideas, knowledge, values, and beliefs that shape behavior but are not physically observable.

Examples of Material Culture

• Bamboo in Northeast India:
  • Used for various purposes from birth to death.
  • Examples include making containers, tools, and even housing materials.
• Housing Materials:
  • Igloos made of ice in the Arctic.
  • Wood or bamboo houses in forest areas.
  • Modern houses made of concrete.

Other Definitions

• Malinowski:
  • Definition: Culture as an “instrumental reality” for satisfying biological and derived needs.
  • Components: Implements, social groupings, human ideas, crafts, beliefs, and customs.
• Kluckhohn and Kelly:
  • Definition: Culture is the “accumulated treasury of human creation” including books, paintings, buildings, language, customs, and systems of etiquette, ethics, religion, and morals.
• Kluckhohn:
• Definition: Culture consists of “patterned ways of thinking, feeling, and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols.”

Importance of Environment:

• Culture reflects how humans interact with and adapt to their environment.
• Example: Use of natural materials for making tools and shelter.

Concepts in Culture

Enculturation and Socialisation

• Enculturation:

  • Process of cultural transmission via symbols, teaching from parents to children.
  • Children learn and adapt to cultural ways, manners, habits, and attributes from immediate family members.
  • Begins at home during the formative stage before formal education.
  • Examples: Learning religion, beliefs, habits, etiquette from parents and elders.

• Socialisation:

  • Process by which society integrates its members.
  • Starts when a child interacts with other societal members beyond immediate family (e.g., teachers, peers, extended family).
  • Helps fulfill social roles.
  • Example: Learning social behaviors and roles in school or family gatherings.

Culture Traits, Culture Complexes, and Culture Areas

• Culture Traits:

  • Smallest identifiable units in a culture (Kroeber: "minimal definable element of culture").
  • Example: A chair, which can be part of different rooms (living room, study room, dining area).

• Culture Complexes:

  • Larger contexts combining multiple culture traits.
  • Example: Dining habits and sitting practices forming a complex of eating on a table.
  • Complexes can reflect social hierarchy and status.

• Culture Areas:

  • Geographic locations with similar cultures.
  • Example: Celebration of Makar Sankranti in various Indian states (Pongal in Tamil Nadu, Magh Bihu in Assam, Lohri in Punjab).

Patterns of Culture

• Cultural Universals with Variations:

  • Universal practices like marriage have different ceremonial observations across cultures.
  • Examples:
    • Christian Wedding: Takes place in a Church, Pastor presides.
    • Muslim Wedding: Kazi solemnizes the Nikah (contract marriage).
    • Hindu Wedding: Pundit (priest) performs the rituals.

• Ruth Benedict's Study:

• Described cultural patterns as systematic and integrated.
• Example: Japanese prisoners of war exhibiting national character through integrated customs and beliefs.

Importance of Social Context:

• Both enculturation and socialization highlight the need for social interaction in cultural learning.

Integration of Culture:

• Culture complexes demonstrate how various traits integrate to form broader cultural practices.

Geographic and Cultural Interplay:

• Culture areas show how geography influences cultural similarities.

Systematic Patterns:

• Cultural patterns, as seen in different marriage ceremonies, reflect systematic customs and beliefs.

  Mechanisms of Culture Change

  Diffusion

  • Definition: Borrowing elements from other cultures.
  • Process:
    • Direct Diffusion: Contact between two cultures via trade, marriage, or wars.
      • Example: Cultural exchange during trade or war.
    • Forced Diffusion: Dominant group imposes its culture on the defeated group.
      • Example: Cultural imposition during wars.
    • Indirect Diffusion: Cultural traits pass through a mediator without direct contact.
      • Example: Cultural exchange through trade by intermediaries like the Bhotias in Assam.
    • Modern Indirect Diffusion: Through mass media and the internet.
      • Example: Sharing knowledge and information online.

   Acculturation

  • Definition: Exchange of cultural features due to continuous first-hand contact between two groups.
  • Process:
    • Cultures of either or both groups may change.
    • Development of mixed languages (Pidgin).
      • Example: Arabi-Tamil in Tamil Nadu due to trade routes used by Arabs.
      • Example: Nagamese, a mixture of Naga and Assamese.
    • Acculturation in cultural practices.
      • Example: Influence of Christianity in Nagaland, adoption of Church weddings.

  Assimilation

• Definition: A person or group adopts the habits, manners, and ways of an existing group, becoming more like them.
• Process:
• Example: Brahmins in Assam adopting Assamese customs, language, and diet.
• Modern Example: Indians adopting Western cultures, such as fast food becoming part of the Indian diet.

Direct Diffusion:

• Cultural exchange through direct interaction.
• Often seen in trade, marriage, and conflicts.

Forced Diffusion:

• Imposition of culture by a dominant group.
• Historical examples include colonization and conquests.

Indirect Diffusion:

• Cultural elements pass through intermediaries or media.
• Modern examples include global cultural trends through the internet and media.

Acculturation:

• Continuous interaction leading to blended cultural features.
• Language and rituals are common areas of acculturation.

Assimilation:

• Full adoption and integration of another culture’s practices.
• Common in diaspora communities adapting to host cultures.

Cultural Relativism and Ethnocentrism

Definitions

• Ethnocentrism:
  • Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture.
  • Coined by William Graham Sumner in "Folkways" (1906).
  • Assumes one's own culture and way of life are superior.
• Cultural Relativism:
  • Studying a culture from the perspective of that culture.
  • Introduced by Franz Boas.
  • Understands behavior in context of the culture's own norms and history.

Key Points

• Ethnocentrism:

  • Historically common in early anthropology.
  • European authors judged other cultures as "strange" or "exotic".
  • Influenced evolutionary theories of culture.

• Cultural Relativism:

  • Encourages understanding customs in their own cultural context.
  • Avoids judging cultural practices based on external standards.
  • Example: Polyandry understood within the societal context it exists.

• Criticism of Cultural Relativism:

• From a human rights perspective, some cultural practices violate human rights.
• Feminists critique cultural relativism for perpetuating patriarchy.
• Examples: Female infanticide, denying women inheritance rights.

Ethnocentrism:

• Historical context of European anthropologists.
• Contributed to biased views and theories.

Cultural Relativism:

• Aimed at a more objective understanding.
• Promotes cultural sensitivity and contextual analysis.

Criticisms:

• Challenges in balancing cultural understanding with human rights.
• Feminist perspectives highlight ongoing cultural biases.