UNIT 8 CLASSICAL THEORIES

 Introduction to Anthropology

• Origins and Evolution:

  • Started as the Science of Man, primarily studied by white men.
  • By the 16th century, humans were understood as part of nature, governed by its laws.
  • Transitioned from religious to scientific/secular perspectives.

• Scientific Approach:

  • Based on rationality, evidence, and empirical methodology.
  • Aimed at objective study of society using principles of natural science.

Comparative Method and Science of Society

• Scientific Method:

  • Relies on observation, experimentation, and comparison.
  • Human societies can only be observed, not experimented upon.

• Positivism:

  • Belief that truth can be reached through proper scientific investigation.
  • Comparison of societies to natural systems led to formulating societal laws.

Key Scholars and Contributions

• Armchair Anthropologists:

  • Compared data from various societies using deductive reasoning.
  • Example: James Frazer's "The Golden Bough" – documented rituals and customs globally.

• Frazer's Laws of Magic:

  • Principle of Sympathy:
    • Law of Contagion: Things once in contact can influence each other.
    • Law of Similarity: Things that resemble each other have a connection.
  • Examples: Witchcraft with photographs, sacred food (prasad).

• Evolutionary Schema:

  • Frazer's progression: Magic → Religion → Science.
  • August Comte's schema: Age of Religion → Age of Metaphysics → Age of Reason.
  • Modern critique: Elements of magic and religion persist alongside scientific progress.

Impact of Early Theories

• Eurocentrism:
  • European civilization seen as the pinnacle of human achievement.
  • Spread of patriarchy and the idea of Western superiority.
  • Persisting influence despite academic evolution.

Data Collection and Verification

• Ethnological/Comparative Method:
• Compared large amounts of data from travelogues, missionaries, traders, and tourists.
• Scholars like Edward B. Tylor and Frazer tried to filter reliable data.
• Mostly hearsay, verified through comparison and recurrent patterns.

Classical Evolutionary Theory

Basic Premises of Evolutionary School:

1. Progressive Evolution:
   • Societies evolve from lower to higher stages, implying improvement.
2. Single Culture Concept:
   • Only one Culture (with a capital C); differences are due to societies being at different stages of this Culture.
3. Unilineal Theory:
   • Cultural progress follows a single line.
4. Predictive Nature:
   • Once sequences of progress are established, future stages of societal development can be predicted.
5. Meta-Theory:
   • Generalized, all-encompassing theory akin to scientific laws.

Criticisms of Evolutionary Theory:

• Subjectivity of Progress:
  • What defines progress? Criteria for ranking societies?
• Eurocentrism:
  • Western societies considered more "civilized"; non-Western societies deemed "primitive."
• Speculative Nature:
  • Lack of empirical evidence; reliance on speculative sequences.
• Patriarchy:
  • Matriarchy seen as inferior to patriarchy, reflecting Western societal norms.

Key Scholars and Contributions:

1. James Frazer:
   • The Golden Bough; Laws of Magic (Sympathetic Magic: Contagion and Similarity).
   • Evolution of religious beliefs: Animism → Naturism → Totemism → Polytheism → Monotheism.
2. Edward B. Tylor:
   • Defined culture; earliest form of religion as Animism.
   • Belief in the soul; evolution of other belief systems.
3. Lewis Henry Morgan:
   • Father of Kinship studies; societies move from kinship to territory-based (Civitas).
   • Descriptive and specific kinship systems/terms.
   • Ethnical Periods: Development stages of social institutions.

Comparative Analysis of Societies:

• Data Collection:
  • Used travelogues, missionary accounts, traders, and tourists' reports.
• Limitations:
• Data often hearsay; verification through comparison and recurrent patterns.

Classical Diffusion Theory

Basic Premises of Diffusion School:

1. Multiple Cultures:
   • Cultures originate in different regions, spreading like ripples on water.
2. Hybrid Cultures:
   • Cultures can meet at the edges and produce hybrid cultures.
3. Cultural Dilution:
   • As cultures spread, they become diluted and inferior.
4. Multiple Cultural Complexes:
   • There are several distinct Cultures, each a specific regional complex of traits.

Key Differences from Evolutionary School:

1. Progress vs. Deterioration:
   • Evolutionists believe in cultural progress, while diffusionists believe in the deterioration of cultural traits as they spread.
2. Unilineal vs. Multiple Cultures:
   • Evolutionists believe in a single, unilineal cultural progression; diffusionists believe in multiple, distinct cultures.

Notable Diffusion Theories:

1. Egyptologists:
   • Belief that all culture originated in Egypt (Perry and Elliott-Smith); lacked lasting influence.
2. German School:
   • Multiple origins and radiation of cultures (Graebner and Father Schmidt).
   • Culture circles (kulturkreis): Configurations of traits that diffused together.
   • Diffusion influenced by receiving culture's pattern (Acculturation).

Criticisms and Contributions:

1. Speculative Nature:
   • Many diffusion theories were speculative and based on ill-informed data.
2. Influence and Acceptance:
   • Diffusion had less influence than evolutionary theory; Tylor’s comments on trait diffusion were more acceptable.
3. Similarity in Prehistoric Tools:
   • Tylor attributed similarities in tools to diffusion rather than independent origin.
4. Warning Against Superficial Resemblances:
• Tylor cautioned that similarities might be due to independent origins, not diffusion.

Historical Particularism

Founding and Background

• Founder: Franz Boas, German origin
• Influences: German school of diffusion, Gestalt Psychology
• Context: Unique American experience of colonization

Key Principles

1. Contextual Social Transformation:
   • Importance of history and specific social contexts
2. Multiple Cultures:
   • Not one universal Culture, but many cultures, each historically derived and specifically located
3. Material Existence of Culture:
   • Culture rooted in material existence, not just ideas
4. Role of Individuals:
   • Cultures shaped by individuals and their historical and environmental contexts

Theoretical Insights

• Gestalt Psychology:
  • Mind forms a global whole with self-organizing tendencies
  • Human perception is active interpretation
• Ideographic vs. Nomothetic:
  • Theory of the particular (unique incidents) vs. general laws

Contributions and Developments

1. Branches of Anthropology:
   • Historical, ecological, medical, psychological anthropology
2. Field Data Collection:
   • Emphasis on collecting and documenting field data
3. Cultural Diffusion and Areas:
   • Influence of German school of diffusion and culture circles

Influential Figures and Theories

• Franz Boas:
  • "The Mind of the Primitive Man"
  • Emphasized unique nature of different cultures
• Ruth Benedict:
• Cultural Configuration: Culture as more than the sum of its parts
• National Character Studies: Concept of overall cultural ethos

Neo-Diffusionism

Key Figures and Concepts

• A.L. Kroeber:
  • Ethos and Eidos of Culture:
    • Ethos: Overall character of culture
    • Eidos: Components of culture
  • Culture and Environment:
    • Cultures develop into climax cultures under favorable conditions
    • Climax cultures radiate outwards, diluting and forming hybrid cultures
  • Culture Area Theory:
    • Cultures have spatial associations and regional specificities
• Ruth Benedict:
  • National Culture Theory: Cultural configuration determines national culture
• Otis T. Mason and Clark Wissler:
  • Ambitious plan to trace cultural areas across the world, starting from North America
  • Project halted due to practical difficulties

Diffusion and Acculturation

• Diffusion:
  • Spread of cultural traits through travel, trade, and migration
  • Political or economic dominance facilitates diffusion
  • Modern diffusion is rapid due to technology, leading to globalization
• Acculturation:
  • Direct contact between cultures
  • Process: Acculturation during contact
  • End Product: Diffusion once traits are established

Contemporary Relevance

• Globalization:
• Rapid and large-scale diffusion of culture
• Resulting in a global mass culture
• Threat of loss of cultural identity
• Response: Regression or revitalization of traditions

Neo-Evolution

Key Theorists and Concepts

• Marshall Sahlins:
  • General Evolution:
    • Compares to the trunk of a tree
    • Increased complexity of cultures over time
    • Not an indicator of cultural superiority
  • Specific Evolution:
    • Compares to the branches of a tree
    • Adaptations of cultures to their specific environments
    • High adaptability allows cultures to undergo Adaptive Radiation
• Leslie White:
  • Influenced by unilineal evolutionary theory of Tylor
  • Energy and the Evolution of Culture:
    • Evolution linked to the amount of energy a culture can harness
    • Higher energy use indicates a higher standard of living
    • Formulated mathematical measures of energy use
• Julian Steward:
  • Cultural Ecology:
    • Culture consists of a core and a periphery
    • Core: Techno-economic aspects in a functional relationship with the environment
    • Periphery: Unique traits shaped by historical context
  • Multilinear Evolution:
    • Different cultures evolve along multiple lines based on their specific environments and histories
    • Emphasis on empirical evidence and classification of subsistence modes

Key Concepts Explained

• Adaptive Radiation:
  • Cultures with high adaptability spread and dominate others
  • Example: European colonization due to advanced technology
• Diffusion vs. Evolution:
  • Classical evolutionists confused history with evolution
  • Neo-evolutionists differentiate between cultural evolution and historical change

Contributions and Methodologies

• Empirical Approach:
  • Emphasis on verifiable methods
  • Replacement of speculative nature of classical evolution
• Classification Systems:
  • Based on techno-economic adaptations (culture core)
  • Examples: Hunters and gatherers share common core features but are unique in peripheral traits