UNIT 9 THEORIES OF STRUCTUREAND FUNCTION

 Introduction to Functionalism and Structural Functional Approach

Classical Theories Revisited

• Previous unit discussed classical theories of society and culture.
• Evolutionism and diffusion transitioned to contemporary societal studies.

Functionalism and Structural Functionalism

Core Concepts

• Functionalism:

  • Society as a whole with interconnected parts.
  • Each part (roles, groups, institutions, associations, organizations) contributes to the maintenance and order of the whole.
  • Order is essential for society's survival and continuation.

• Historical Roots:

  • Concept traced back to Plato and Aristotle’s organic analogy (society as an organism).

Key Theorists and Contributions

• Bronislaw Malinowski:

  • Associated with the term "functionalism."
  • Emphasized the role of each part in fulfilling societal needs.

• Alfred Radcliffe-Brown:

  • Introduced the term "structural-functional approach."

• Talcott Parsons:

  • Referred to the approach as "structural-functionalism."
  • Explored the problem of societal order and endurance.

• Émile Durkheim:

  • Not a strict functionalist but defined the concept of social function.
  • Studied contemporary society and its structures.
  • Example: Analyzed Australian totemism to understand religion's role in complex societies.

Historical Development

• Early 20th Century:

  • Rise of functionalism with the decline of classical evolutionary approaches.
  • 1922: Key year for functionalism with publications by Radcliffe-Brown ("The Andaman Islanders") and Malinowski ("Argonauts of the Western Pacific").

• Influence on Sociology:

  • Functionalism influenced various disciplines, especially sociology.
  • Talcott Parsons and others were significantly impacted by functional anthropologists.

• Evolution of Functionalism:

• Over 150 years, functionalism developed into several variants.
• Differences exist among functionalists regarding their approaches and foci.

Reflection on Functionalism and Structural Functionalism

Shared Propositions Among Functionalists

1. System Concept: Society (or culture) is like other systems (solar, mechanical, atomic, chemical, organic).
2. Interconnected Parts: Society consists of parts (institutions, groups, roles, associations, organizations) that are interconnected, interrelated, and interdependent.
3. Functional Interdependence: Each part performs its function and contributes to the whole, functioning in relation to other parts.
4. Interconnected Changes: A change in one part affects or influences the functioning of other parts due to their close connections.
5. Holistic Identity: Society or culture is greater than the sum of its parts, possessing its own identity or ‘collective consciousness’ (Durkheim’s term).

Transition from Evolutionary to Functional Approach

• 19th Century Evolutionism:

  • Focused on origins and evolutionary stages of cultural practices.
  • Relied heavily on second-hand data from travelers, missionaries, colonial officers, and soldiers.
  • Resulted in speculative and often biased generalizations (e.g., ‘arm-chair anthropologists’).

• Criticism by Functionalists:

  • Radcliffe-Brown: 19th-century evolutionism based on ‘conjectural history’ lacking scientific value.
  • Malinowski: Dismissed it as ‘limbo of conjectural reconstructions’.

Shifts Introduced by Functionalism

1. Fieldwork-Based Studies: From ‘arm-chair anthropology’ to hands-on fieldwork.
2. Synchronic Studies: From studying origins and evolutionary stages (diachronic) to examining contemporary societies (synchronic).
3. Micro Approach: From macro-level studies of entire societies to focusing on particular, especially small-scale, societies.
4. Practical Use: Applying anthropological knowledge to improve societal conditions and relationships (Malinowski’s ‘practical anthropology’).

Functionalist Focus

• Objective: Study ‘what society is’ rather than ‘what society was’.
• Methodology: Emphasized living with people in their natural habitats and learning from fieldwork, employing scientific methods of observation and comparison.
• Evolution and Diffusion: Recognized their importance but insisted on factual, non-speculative study of social processes.

Structuralism in Anthropology

Key Concepts

• Structuralism: An approach focusing on the underlying structures of social and cultural facts.
• Sources of Data: Uses secondary data (archives, museums, libraries) in addition to fieldwork.
• Influence: Originated from linguistic studies, especially work by Ferdinand de Saussure.

Key Principles

• Hidden Structures: Just as languages have hidden grammars, societies have underlying structures not known to their members.
• Discovery: Anthropologists discover these unconscious structures, influenced by linguistic structuralism.
• Analogy: Functionalism uses an organic analogy; structuralism uses a linguistic analogy.

Development and Exponents

• Claude Lévi-Strauss: Chief proponent of structuralism, focusing on kinship, totemism, and myths.
• Comparison: British functionalism had figures like Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown; American functionalism had Parsons and Merton. Structuralism is primarily associated with Lévi-Strauss.
• Neo-Structuralists: Scholars who modified Lévi-Strauss’s approach, including Edmund R. Leach, Mary Douglas, T.O. Beidelman, and Louis Dumont.

Structuralist Approach

• Universal Principles: Despite the diversity of societies, structuralists believe in universal principles underlying all social structures.
• Kinship: Lévi-Strauss's work on kinship emphasizes the principle of the ‘exchange of women,’ leading to models of balanced reciprocity (sister exchange) and generalized exchange.

Criticisms and Limitations

• Global Ambition: Critics argue that structuralism's ambition to uncover global structures ignores human diversity and historical progression.
• A-Historical: Structuralism is seen as ignoring historical changes and the evolution of societies.
• Limited Application: While claiming applicability to all aspects of society, Lévi-Strauss mainly focused on kinship, totemism, and myths.

Impact and Legacy

• Influence on Literature and Art: Structuralism influenced studies in literature, art history, aesthetics, and cultural products.
• Decline: Structuralism’s popularity declined with the rise of interpretive approaches in anthropology.
• Neo-Structuralism: A humbler approach that applies structuralism at a more regional level.

Conflict Theories:

Overview

• Conflict Theory: An umbrella term for theories focusing on relations of conflict across various disciplines.
• Origins: Traced back to thinkers like Karl Marx, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and others.
• Universal Presence: Conflict exists in all societies, not just in episodes of violence but also as dissents, disagreements, and social movements.

Key Theorists and Contributions

• Karl Marx (1818-1883):
  • Theory of Revolution: Conflict as a driver of societal change.
  • Historical Materialism: Economic factors as the basis of conflict.
• Georg Simmel (1858-1918):
  • Conflict central to social life.
• Ralf Dahrendorf (1929-2009):
  • Conflict is normal and necessary for societal progress.
• Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825):
  • Conflict between industrialists and workers.
  • Stages of society carry the seeds of their own destruction.
• Charles Darwin (1809-1882):
  • On the Origin of Species: Competition and survival as forms of conflict.
• Ludwig Gumplowicz (1838-1909):
  • Conflict between ethnic groups.
• Lewis Coser (1913-2003):
  • Conflict as a functional part of human life, ensuring group cohesion.

Conflict in Society

• Nature of Conflict:
  • Not limited to violence; includes verbal duels, protests, uprisings, etc.
  • Conflict is seen as a normal part of societal dynamics.
• Impact of Conflict:
  • Conflict exposes societal problems and necessitates change.
  • New order emerges post-conflict, but it is often temporary, leading to new conflicts.
• Conflict in Small Societies:
  • Early anthropological studies focused on order, overlooking conflict.
  • Conflicts often result from external influences (e.g., colonization, missionization).

Functional Theory and Conflict

• Functionalism:
  • Focuses on societal order and cohesiveness.
  • Durkheim's concept of anomie highlights the disruption caused by rapid change.
• Conflict as Functional:
  • Conflict maintains group cohesion and prevents disintegration.
  • Even in small, seemingly harmonious societies, conflict is present.

Types of Conflict

• Rebel Movements:
  • Aim to replace oppressive rulers, not change the system.
• Revolutions:
  • Demand a complete change in the societal system.

Modern Perspectives

• Conflict Theory Today:
  • Conflict theory is relevant for understanding various social, economic, and political dynamics.
  • It remains significant in sociological and anthropological studies despite the rise of other theories.