UNIT 10 KINSHIP

Kinship System in India: An Overview

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Objectives:

• Define the kinship system.
• Describe the dimensions of the kinship system in India.
• Discuss major aspects of the North Indian kinship system.
• Discuss major aspects of the South Indian kinship system.
• Discuss kinship systems in North-East and South-West India.

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Introduction

• Family & Marriage: Kinship rules, norms, and patterns shape family structures in India.
• Diversity in Kinship: India’s diverse regions exhibit distinct kinship systems, with notable differences between North and South India. The North-East and South-West regions also offer unique variations.

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Definition of Kinship System

• Kinship System: A network of relationships recognized as kin, either through blood (consanguinity) or marriage (affinity).
• Consanguinity: Refers to blood relationships (e.g., mother-child, siblings) recognized socially, not necessarily biologically.
• Affinity: Refers to relationships through marriage (e.g., in-laws).

1. Kinship System:
   • Blood Relationships: Consanguinity (e.g., mother-child, siblings).
   • Marriage Relationships: Affinity (e.g., in-laws).
2. Dimensions of Kinship in India:
• Regional Variations: North and South India exhibit distinct kinship patterns, reflecting the country’s cultural diversity.
• North Indian Kinship: Characterized by specific customs, norms, and familial roles.
• South Indian Kinship: Displays different kinship structures, reflecting varied social norms.
• North-East & South-West Kinship: Unique systems reflecting local customs and traditions.

Dimensions of Kinship System

1. Kinship Groups:

   • Definition: Social groups formed based on kin relationships for cooperation, inheritance of property, and identity.
   • Descent Principle: Groups are based on either patrilineal or matrilineal descent, excluding those not related by this principle.
   • Types of Descent Groups:
     • Lineage: Direct descent from a common ancestor.
     • Clan: A group of related families.
     • Moiety: One of two descent groups that divide a society into two.

2. Kinship Terminology:

   • Kin Term: A label for a particular kin relationship.
   • Kinship Terminology: A system of kin terms logically related to each other.
   • Types of Terminologies:
     • Based on logical patterns, almost all global kinship terminologies can be categorized into four or five types.

3. Marriage Rules:

   • Prescriptive Rules:
     • Define exact categories of persons preferred or prohibited in marriage.
     • Example: In South India, marrying a cross cousin is expected, while marrying a parallel cousin is prohibited.
   • Preferential Marriage Systems:
     • More open systems that primarily identify prohibited relatives (incest) but allow freedom in other choices.

4. Exchange of Gifts:

• Marriage Prestations: The transaction of gifts during marriages.
• Types of Prestations:
• Bride Price: Common worldwide, involves the exchange of wealth for a woman.
• Dowry: More common in hierarchical societies, indicating the higher status of the bride's receiving group and is a marker of patriarchy.
• Caste and Regional Variations:
• Upper Castes: Practice dowry in both North and South India.
• Lower Castes and Tribes: Practice bride price.

Kinship System in North India

Key Figure: Irawati Karve

• Background:
  • First female anthropologist/sociologist in India.
  • Established the Department of Anthropology at Poona University.
  • Renowned for her contributions to anthropology, serology, Indology, and sociology.
  • Advocated for fieldwork in social research and was involved in mapping social groups like sub-castes.

1. Kinship Groups:

• Patrilineage:

  • Definition: Kinship organization based on unilineal descent through the male line.
  • Function: Patrilineages form land-holding cooperative groups, often engaging in conflict with rival groups.

• Clan and Lineage Groups:

  • Clan:
    • Based on descent from a common, often mythical ancestor.
    • Practiced clan exogamy—marriage outside the clan.
  • Lineage:
    • Traceable descent from a known ancestor.
    • Both lineage and clan exogamy are practiced in North India.
  • Gotra Exogamy:
    • Marriage outside one's gotra (ancestral lineage linked to a mythological sage) is observed in jati-based societies.

• Caste and Subcaste:

  • Caste: Often refers to a jati, a local group with a name and traditional occupation.
  • Subcaste: Subdivisions within a caste based on occupation, purity of past marriages, or other markers.
    • Example: The Aggarwal caste may have sub-castes such as grain dealers and gold/silver dealers.

• Fictive Kinship:

• Definition: Kinship bonds formed without biological or marital ties.
• Examples:
• Rakhi: A woman ties a rakhi on a man, creating a fictive brother-sister bond.
• Christian Godparenting: Naming a Godfather or Godmother at a child's baptism as an institutionalized form of fictive kinship.

Kinship Terminology in North India

1. Descriptive Nature of Kinship Terms:

• Bifurcate Collateral Terminology:
  • Definition: Each kinship term is unique and descriptive, indicating a specific relationship.
  • Example:
    • Chachera Bhai: Father's younger brother's (chacha’s) son.
    • Mamera Bhai: Mother's brother's (mama’s) son.
  • Distinction between Cousins:
    • Parallel Cousins: Children of one's father's brother or mother's sister (e.g., Chachera Bhai, Chachera Behen).
    • Cross Cousins: Children of one's father's sister or mother's brother (e.g., Mamera Bhai, Mamera Behen).
  • Terms for Sibling's Children:
    • Brother’s Children: Bhatija (male), Bhatiji (female).
    • Sister’s Children: Bhanja (male), Bhanji (female).

2. Kinship Terms Signifying Social Behaviour:

• Concept by A.R. Radcliffe-Brown: Kinship behaviour reflects the relationship dynamics within kinship terms.

  • Unity of Sibling Group: Shared responsibilities and unity among siblings.
  • Distance of Adjacent Generations: Respect and distance maintained between adjacent generations.
  • Merging of Alternate Generations: Sometimes generations may merge in terms of roles and respect.

• Joking Relationships:

  • Example: Devar-Bhabhi (younger brother-in-law and elder brother’s wife) relationship.
  • Purpose: Reduces tension in potentially ambiguous relationships through humor.

• Avoidance Relationships:

  • Example: Relationship between a woman and her husband’s father (Shvasur) or husband’s elder brother (Bhasur).
  • Purpose: Avoids potential conflicts by maintaining distance and respect.

Marriage Rules in North India

1. Clan Exogamy:

• Rule: No marriage within one’s patrilineage, generally up to five or six generations.
• Gotra System: Marriages are prohibited within the same gotra (clan).

2. The Four Clan Rule:

• Prohibits Marriage with:
  • Father’s Gotra
  • Mother’s Gotra
  • Father’s Mother’s Gotra
  • Mother’s Mother’s Gotra
• Village Exogamy:
  • Rule: Marriage is prohibited within the same village, as villagers are considered akin to siblings.

3. Marriages within the Sub-Caste:

• Hierarchical Marriages: Women are always married into a family of higher status within the sub-caste.

• Proverbial Rule: "The creeper must not go back" – emphasizes that marriage reversals are not allowed.

• Prohibition on Repetition:

  • Rule: If a father’s sister has been married into a family, one’s own sister cannot be given in marriage to the same family.
  • Implication: Both patrilateral and matrilateral cross-cousin marriages are prohibited.

Ceremonial Exchange of Gifts among Kin

• Bride-Givers vs. Bride-Takers:
• Bride-Givers: Initiate the gift-giving process and give larger amounts due to their perceived inferior status.
• Example:
• Mamere Gifts: Given by one’s mother’s brother.
• Ban Gifts: Given by agnatic kin, such as the groom’s sister’s husband to the groom’s wife’s brother.

Kinship System in South India

South India, comprising Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, exhibits both common patterns and regional variations in kinship systems. Notably, Kerala is distinct due to its matrilineal descent and inter-caste hypergamy practices.

Kinship Groups

1. Patrilineage

   • Similar to North India, South Indian kinship heavily relies on patrilineal descent.
   • Patrilocal Residence: After marriage, women move to their husband's home, strengthening patrilineal bonds.
   • Example: In Tanjore district Brahmins, patrilineal descent groups are spread across small communities. Each caste in a village typically has 1-12 exogamous patrilineal groups.
   
   (Sample Diagram: Patrilineal Descent)

2. Affinal Relatives

• Includes relatives from a person’s mother's and wife's families.
• Affines: Commonly known as mama-machchinan (maternal uncles and mother-in-law's side).
• The relationship between patrilineal and affinal groups is generally cordial and cooperative.

Kinship Terminology in South India

The kinship terminology in South India is structured with precision and is distinguished by its bifurcate-merging nature, which separates parallel cousins from cross-cousins and is highly classificatory.

Key Features of Kinship Terminology

1. Parallel and Cross-Cousins

   • Parallel Cousins: Children of siblings of the same sex (e.g., children of two brothers or two sisters).
     • Marriage Restriction: Parallel cousins are considered brothers/sisters and cannot marry each other.
     • Terms in Tamil:
       • Parallel Cousins:
         • Elder Brother: Annan
         • Younger Brother: Tambi
         • Elder Sister: Akka
         • Younger Sister: Tangachi
     • 
       (Sample Diagram: Parallel Cousins)
   • Cross-Cousins: Children of siblings of opposite sex (e.g., children of a brother and a sister).
     • Marriage Permissibility: Cross-cousins can marry each other.
     • Terms in Tamil:
       • Cross-Cousins:
         • Mother’s Brother’s Daughter/Son: Mama Magal/Magan
         • Father’s Sister’s Daughter/Son: Attai Magal/Magan

2. Classificatory Nature

   • Division of Generation:
     • Group 1 (Pangali in Tamil): Includes all brothers and sisters, parallel cousins, and children of the father’s parallel cousins.
     • Group 2 (Mama-Machchinan): Includes cross-cousins and affinal relatives such as spouse of group 1 members.

Marriage Rules

1. Preferential Marriage Rules:

   • Elder Sister’s Daughter: Preferred in several castes, except among matrilineal societies like the Nayars.
   • Father’s Sister’s Daughter (FZD): Also referred to as the marriage of a woman with her mother’s brother’s son (MBS).
   • Mother’s Brother’s Daughter (MBD): Seen in castes like the Kallar of Tamil Nadu, Havik Brahmin of Karnataka, and some Reddy castes of Andhra Pradesh.

2. Restrictions on Marital Alliances:

   • Prohibitions may vary by caste, such as:
     • Elder sister’s daughter can marry a man, but not the younger sister’s daughter.
     • Widow cannot marry deceased husband’s elder, younger, or classificatory brother.
     • Lineage Restrictions: Individuals cannot marry within their lineage (e.g., Kallar lineage known as Kuttam).

Ceremonial Exchange of Gifts among Kin

1. Types of Gift Exchanges:

   • Affinal Exchange: Between the bride’s and groom’s families.
   • Internal Exchange: Within each of the two kin groups, where gifts are exchanged both ways.

2. Element of Reciprocity:

• South India: Reciprocal exchange of gifts between both sides, though the bride-givers usually give more. Unlike the unidirectional flow in North India, the exchange in South India is two-sided, maintaining relationships among close relatives. 

Kinship Organization in Matrilineal Communities in North-East and South-West India

Matrilineal kinship systems, although less common, provide unique patterns of social organization. In India, these systems are primarily found in the north-eastern and south-western regions. Here’s a simplified and engaging summary of the key points:

1. Overview of Matrilineal Systems

• Regions: Matrilineal societies are found in Meghalaya, Assam (Garo and Khasi tribes), Kerala, parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, and Lakshadweep.
• Inheritance: Property is inherited by daughters from their mothers.
• Descent: Descent is traced through the female line.

2. Matrilineal Groups in North-East India

A. The Garo Tribe (Meghalaya)

• Matrilineage (Machong): Refers to an extended group of kin tracing descent from a common mother. Households are passed down through daughters.
• Clans: Garo society is divided into two phratries (Marak and Sangma), with strict rules prohibiting inter-marriage between these two groups.
• Marriage & Residence:
  • Matrilocal Residence: Sons-in-law live in their wives' parental homes and eventually may marry their mother-in-law after the father-in-law's death, a practice known as "mother-in-law marriage."
  • Cross-Cousin Marriage: Marriage with a mother's brother's daughter is common.
• Decision-Making: Though lineage is traced through women, men handle decision-making related to property and household affairs.
• Divorce: Rare but possible due to adultery or refusal to work.

B. The Khasi Tribe (Meghalaya)

• Matrilineal Descent: Descent, inheritance, and succession follow the mother’s line.
• Clan Structure:
  • Exogamous Clans: Members of the same clan cannot marry each other.
  • Classificatory Kinship Terminology: Lineal relatives (e.g., father, son) are addressed using the same terms as some collateral relatives.
• Marriage Rules:
  • Matrilocal Residence: Husbands live with their wives' parents after marriage.
  • Cross-Cousin Marriage: Permitted, specifically matrilateral cross-cousin marriage.
  • Restrictions: Levirate and sororate marriages, hypergamy, polygyny, and polyandry are not practiced.
• Inheritance:
  • Property acquired before marriage belongs to the man’s mother; after marriage, it belongs to his wife and is inherited by the wife and children.
  • The youngest daughter inherits the majority share of property upon the mother's death. If there is no daughter, sons inherit equally.

3. Key Concepts and Diagrams

A. Matrilineage (Garo):

• Diagram: Mother → Daughter → Granddaughter (Property and lineage pass through the female line)

B. Clan Structure (Khasi):

• Diagram: Great Grandmother → Sub-Clans → Family (Grandmother → Daughters → Grandchildren)
• Special Note: Sons become part of their wives’ families after marriage.

C. Marriage Patterns:

• Flowchart:
  1. Garo:
     • Cross-Cousin Marriage → Matrilateral marriage pattern
     • Mother-in-Law Marriage → Ensures continuity of the household
  2. Khasi:
     • Cross-Cousin Marriage → Matrilateral cross-cousin marriage allowed
     • Restricted Marriages → No Levirate, Sororate, Polygyny, or Polyandry

D. Inheritance:

• Relational Diagram:
• Garo: Property → Daughter → Son-in-law → Granddaughter
• Khasi: Mother → Youngest Daughter → Grandchildren (if no daughter, sons inherit equally)

Matrilineal Groups in South-West India:

1. Nayar Community in Kerala

• Matrilineal Descent: The Nayar of Central Kerala follows a matrilineal kinship system where descent is traced through the mother.
• Visiting Husbands: Nayar women have visiting husbands; they don't live with their husbands under one roof, unlike in elementary families.
• Hypergamy: Nayar women could marry Nambudiri Brahmins or other higher caste groups. This is an example of inter-caste hypergamy.
• Sambandham (Marriage):
  • Nature of Marriage: Marriage was weak among the Nayar, involving very few obligations.
  • Legitimization of Children: Children were legitimized through a simple process involving payment to a midwife and gift to the mother.
  • Ritual Husband: A woman observed pollution on the death of her ritual husband, but not when a visiting husband died.
• Property and Lineage:
  • Taravad: The term used for the clan, lineage, and property group.
  • Karanavan: The oldest male member responsible for the economic activities of the taravad.
  • Cooperation in Rites: Lineages were linked through cooperation at pre-puberty, marriage rites of girls, and funerals.
• Kinship Relations:
  • Mother-Son Closeness: There was a close relationship between mother and son.
  • Avoidance Relationships: A man had a formal relationship with his younger sister and avoided his sister's son.
  • Incest Prohibitions: Incest was strictly prohibited within the matrilineage and certain affinal relations.
• Recent Changes:
  • Shift to Bilateral Kinship: Nayars are moving towards bilateral kinship, emphasizing relationships on both the mother’s and father’s sides.
  • Acceptance of Elementary Family: Increasing acceptance of elementary family structure among the Nayar of Central Kerala.

2. Matrilineal Muslims of Lakshadweep

• Historical Background: These are descendants of Hindu immigrants from Kerala who were later converted to Islam.
• Duolocal Residence: Husband and wife live separately, with the husband visiting the wife’s home at night.
• Taravad:
  • Structure: The taravad is a group of both males and females tracing descent from a common female ancestor.
  • Exogamous Unit: Members cannot marry within the same taravad.
  • Property Rights: Property rights are passed through female members, but males have usage rights.
• Influence of Islam:
  • Father's Role: The father plays a significant role, especially in spending on ceremonies related to his children’s life cycle rituals.
  • Impact on Kinship: Islamic practices have influenced kinship patterns, introducing patrilineal elements into the matrilineal framework.
• Marriage and Inheritance:
  • Fragile Marriages: Marriage is fragile with few rights and responsibilities, often leading to frequent divorces.
  • Inheritance Manipulation: Islanders manipulate inheritance using both matrilineal and Islamic principles.
  • Taravad as an Institution: Despite changes, the taravad remains the basic unit of production and consumption, rooted in matriliny.