UNIT 9 FAMILY AND MARRIAGE

Objectives:

• Define Family and Marriage: Understand the definitions and significance of the institutions of family and marriage.
• Describe Types and Forms: Identify the different types of families and forms of marriage.
• Recognize Forces of Change: Identify the major factors responsible for changes in family and marriage institutions.

Introduction:

• Fundamental Institutions: Family and marriage are the foundational institutions of human society, crucial for social relationships and identity formation.

• Socialization in Family: Family is where children are socialized, learning the behaviors and norms needed to participate in society.

• Role of Marriage: Marriage is the institution that makes the formation of a family possible and helps reproduce societal structures.

The Institution of Family:

Definition and Nature:

• Basic Composition:

  • Typically consists of parents and children.
  • Can also include a patri- or matrilineage or a group of cognates (descendants from the same ancestor).
  • In some cases, it refers to a household of relatives and dependents.

• Residence Aspect:

  • Members generally share a common residence for some part of their lives.

• Relational Aspect:

  • Family members have reciprocal rights and duties toward each other.

• Socialization:

  • The family acts as a key agent of socialization, making it distinct from other social units.

Types of Family:

• Basic Kinship Links:

  • Parenthood: Relationship between parents and children.
  • Siblingship: Relationship among siblings.

• Nuclear Family:

  • Comprises a man, his wife, and their unmarried children.

• Joint Family:

  • Includes multiple nuclear families and other relatives.
  • Extended Family:
    • Patrilineal Extension: Based on the father-son relationship.
    • Matrilineal Extension: Based on the mother-daughter relationship.
    • Fraternal/Collateral Family: Horizontally extended to include brothers, their wives, and children.

The Hindu Joint Family:

• Ideal Unit:

  • Composition: Man, his wife, their adult sons, their wives and children, and younger children.
  • Hierarchy:
    • The oldest male is the head of the family.
    • Power and authority are determined by age and sex.
    • Younger members show respect and follow decisions made by elders.

• Property-Sharing:

  • A joint family often shares property, particularly under the Hindu Undivided Family system with the Karta as the guardian.

• Social Dynamics:

  • Communication:
    • Gender influences the nature and frequency of communication.
    • A married woman works primarily with her mother-in-law and sisters-in-law.
  • Conjugal vs. Filial/Fraternal Ties:
    • Conjugal (husband-wife) ties are seen as potentially weakening the joint family.
    • Filial (father-son) and fraternal (brother-brother) relationships are crucial for the stability of the joint family.

Relational Diagrams:

• Family Structure:

  • Parenthood ↔ Siblingship: Central to the formation of any family type.

• Joint Family System:

  • Hierarchy Diagram: Oldest Male (Head) → Adult Sons → Younger Children → Wives (segregated by sex and age).

• Hindu Joint Family Dynamics:

• Power Flow: Head (Oldest Male) → Elder Sons → Younger Members.
• Communication Flow: Gender-segregated tasks and interactions.

The Institution of Marriage:

Definition and Nature:

• Social Approval:

  • Marriage is a socially approved relationship, distinct from mating.
  • Defined and sanctioned by custom and law, guiding behavior in various aspects such as sexual conduct, labor division, duties, and privileges.

• Endogamy and Exogamy:

  • All marriages are influenced by the principles of endogamy (marrying within a specific group) and exogamy (marrying outside one’s group).
  • Incest Taboo: Creates a fundamental division between consanguines (blood relatives, prohibited for marriage) and affines (non-blood relatives, eligible for marriage).

• Legitimacy of Offspring:

  • Children born from a marriage are considered legitimate, which is crucial for inheritance and succession.

• Cultural Significance:

  • Marriage ensures the continuation of the family and fulfills various social and individual purposes.
  • Hindu Perspective: Marriage is a socio-religious duty with aims of dharma (duty), praja (progeny), and rati (sensual pleasure).
  • Islamic Perspective: Marriage is viewed as a "sunnah" (obligation) for every Muslim.
  • Christian Perspective: Marriage is crucial for life, emphasizing the mutual relationship and duties between husband and wife.

Age at Marriage in India:

• Early Marriage:

  • Early marriage is common in India, with varying median ages across religious groups, classes, and castes.

• Child Marriage Restraint Act (Sarda Act):

  • Passed in 1929, setting the minimum marriage age at 14 for girls and 17 for boys.
  • Amended in 1978, raising the minimum age to 18 for girls and 21 for boys.

• Current Trends:

  • Despite legal changes, the median age of marriage for females in India remains lower compared to most low fertility countries.

Forms of Marriage:

1. Monogamy:
   • Marriage of one man to one woman at a time.
   • Hindu Marriage Act (1955): Established monogamy for Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists.
   • Strict monogamy is also prescribed in Christian and Parsi communities.
2. Polygamy:
   • Polygyny: Marriage of one man to multiple women.
     • Allowed in Islam (up to four wives), though practiced by a small percentage, mainly the wealthy.
   • Polyandry: Marriage of one woman to multiple men.
     • Practiced by specific groups like the Toda (Tamil Nadu) and the Khasa (Uttarakhand).

Prevailing Patterns and Changes:

• Migration and Changing Residential Patterns:

  • Migration has led to changes in family residence, with many elderly couples living alone as children move elsewhere for work.
  • Despite physical distance, family sentiments remain strong, with children supporting parents financially and emotionally.

• Arranged Marriages:

  • Arranged marriages still dominate, though more people are choosing their own spouses.
  • Caste vs. Class: Traditional caste norms are being supplemented or replaced by class considerations like education, occupation, and social status.
  • Occupational Homogamy: Increasing trend of individuals marrying within the same profession or rank, e.g., doctors marrying doctors.

• Future Trends:

  • New reproductive technologies and acceptance of diverse sexual preferences may further alter the traditional concepts of family and marriage.

Relational Diagrams:

• Marriage Dynamics:

  • Endogamy ↔ Exogamy: Balancing societal rules of marrying within or outside specific groups.

• Forms of Marriage:

  • Monogamy: One man ↔ One woman.
  • Polygyny: One man ↔ Multiple women.
  • Polyandry: One woman ↔ Multiple men.

• Marriage and Family Stability:

• Distance ≠ Disconnection: Despite geographical distance, family bonds and responsibilities persist.

 Institution of Marriage in India

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1. Definition and Importance of Marriage

• Marriage is a socially approved relationship, setting it apart from mere mating.
• The relationship is sanctioned by custom and law, involving specific guidelines on behavior, division of labor, duties, and privileges.
• It is guided by principles of endogamy (marrying within a group) and exogamy (marrying outside a certain group).

2. Universal Aspects of Marriage

• Incest taboo creates a division between consanguines (blood relatives, prohibited for marriage) and affines (potential marriage partners).
• Children born within a marriage are considered legitimate and this legitimacy is crucial for inheritance and succession.
• Religious texts in India outline the rights, duties, and purposes of marriage.
  • Hindus: Marriage is a socio-religious duty with aims of dharma (duty), praja (progeny), and rati (sensual pleasure).
  • Islam: Marriage is an obligation (sunnah).
  • Christianity: Marriage is essential for establishing a mutual relationship and duties between spouses.

3. Age at Marriage in India

• Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 (Sarda Act) initially set the minimum age for marriage at 14 years for girls and 17 years for boys.
• The 1978 amendment raised the minimum age to 18 years for girls and 21 years for boys.
• Despite legal changes, early marriage remains common, though the median age at marriage has been gradually rising.

4. Forms of Marriage in India

• Monogamy: Marriage to one person at a time.
  • Historically, Hindus permitted polygyny (a man marrying multiple women) but it was uncommon. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 established monogamy for Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Buddhists.
  • Christians and Parsis practice strict monogamy.
• Polygyny: Permitted in Islam (a man can have up to four wives, treated equally) but practiced mainly by the rich and powerful.
• Polyandry: Rare; practiced by communities like the Toda of Tamil Nadu and the Khasa of Uttaranchal.

5. Patterns of Selection of Spouse

• Marriages in India are largely based on prescriptive rules rather than personal preference, characteristic of closed societies.
• Endogamy: Requires marrying within a specific group (e.g., caste, clan, religious group).
  • Caste endogamy: Common in India, with innumerable castes and sub-castes being endogamous.
  • Regional and religious variations exist in the operation of endogamy.
• Exogamy: Prohibits marrying within certain groups, including rules of incest.
  • Sagotra exogamy: Prohibits marriage within the same gotra (ancestral lineage).
    • The four-clan rule in North India restricts marriage within four gotras: father’s, mother’s, father’s mother’s, and mother’s mother’s gotra.
  • Sapinda exogamy: Prohibits marriage within certain sets of relatives related by common ancestry.
    • Hindu Marriage Act, 1955: Prohibits marriage within five generations on the father’s side and three on the mother’s side.
• Arranged Marriages: Most common in India, with marriages often arranged by parents/elders.
• Horoscope matching is a significant element in high-caste Hindu marriages, now often done by computers.
• Among Muslims, marriages are arranged by parents, elders, or a wali (guardian).

Marriage Rites in India

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1. Significance of Marriage Rites

• Marriage rites are an essential part of Indian culture, reflecting deep-rooted religious, cultural, and social traditions.
• Variations in rites exist not only across different religions but also within castes, sects, and between rural and urban communities.

2. Hindu Marriage Rites

• Hindu marriage is considered a sacrament (samskara), meaning it is a lifelong union that cannot be dissolved.
• Essential Hindu Marriage Rites:
  • Kanyadan: The father gives the bride to the groom.
  • Panigrahana: The groom clasps the bride’s hand.
  • Agniparinaya: The couple goes around the sacred fire.
  • Lajahoma: Offering of parched grains to the sacrificial fire.
  • Saptapadi: The bride and groom take seven steps together.
• These rites are performed by various castes with slight variations and are central to the Hindu marriage ceremony.
• Brahmin priests often recite religious mantras during these rituals.

3. Jain and Sikh Marriage Rites

• Some sections of the Jain and Sikh communities have rituals similar to those of the Hindus, but with distinct elements.
• Sikh Marriage (Anand Karaj):
  • Conducted in the presence of the Guru Granth Sahib (holy book).
  • The bridal couple circles the holy book four times.
  • Shabad (verses) are recited by the officiating priest.
  • No specific season or period is required for Sikh marriages.

4. Muslim Marriage Rites

• Muslim marriage is viewed as a contract rather than a sacrament, meaning it can be dissolved.
• Nikah: The essential ceremony of Muslim marriage, performed by a priest or kazi.
  • Requires the consent of both the groom and the bride.
  • A nikahnama (formal document) records the marriage, often including signatures of the couple and two witnesses.
  • The mehr is a stipulated sum or assets paid by the groom to the bride, either immediately or at a later date.
• Variation in rituals exists between different sects (e.g., Shia and Sunni) and regions.

5. Christian Marriage Rites

• Christian weddings typically take place in a church.
• Exchange of rings is a significant ritual in Christian marriages.
• Syrian Christians in Kerala incorporate the Hindu rite of the groom tying a tali (symbol of marriage) on the bride’s neck, similar to the Hindu custom in South India.

6. Marriage as a Rite of Passage

• Marriage is a life cycle ceremony or rite of passage that socially announces and legitimizes the union.
• The rituals associated with marriage mark the transition from one stage of life to another, emphasizing its social and religious significance.

Changes in Family and Marriage in India

The family and marriage systems in India have been influenced by various interrelated factors over time. Here's a consolidated summary of the key points:

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1. Economic Factors

• Market Economy: The spread of market economy and diversification of employment opportunities led to changes in the joint family system.
• Urban Migration: People moved to cities for jobs, often leading to residential separation from ancestral homes. This contributed to the breakdown of joint families.
• Women's Employment: Increased opportunities for women have altered family roles, especially in dual-income households.

2. Educational Factors

• British Rule: Higher education opportunities emerged, exposing people to liberal and humanitarian ideas.
• Impact on Marriage: Educated individuals questioned traditional practices like child marriage and demanded education for women.
• Role of Educated Women: Educated women started influencing family matters differently, affecting traditional family structures.

3. Legal Factors

• Labour Laws: Employment laws reduced economic dependence on joint families.
• Property Rights: The Hindu Gains of Learning Act (1930) and the Hindu Succession Act (1956) altered inheritance patterns, promoting individual ownership over joint family property.
• Marriage Laws: The Child Marriage Restraint Act (1929) and changes in the legal marriage age aimed to curb child marriage and promote women's education.

4. Urbanization

• Migration to Cities: The shift from rural to urban areas has led to the formation of nuclear families due to limited living space and the demands of urban life.
• Impact on Family Size: Migration and the need for mobility have contributed to the disintegration of large family units.
• New Family Structures: Urbanization has led to varied family structures, including nuclear families, dual-income households, and kin-based living arrangements.

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Emerging Patterns of Family and Marriage

1. Urban Family Structures:

   • Both spouses may work outside the home, leading to changes in traditional family roles.
   • Some families include extended members (e.g., in-laws) for child care and household support.
   • Professional help (maids, crèches) is often employed in nuclear families to manage household tasks.

2. Support for Aged Parents:

   • Elderly parents are increasingly making economic provisions for their old age, rather than relying on their children.
   • Daughters are now also seen as potential supporters of their parents in old age.

3. Kinship Relations:

   • Bilateral kinship (recognizing both paternal and maternal relatives) is becoming more common in nuclear families, especially in urban areas.

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Recent Trends in Marriage

1. Intercaste Marriages:
   • Legally recognized and slowly increasing, but still a small proportion of total marriages.
2. Endogamy and Arranged Marriages:
   • Caste endogamy (marrying within one's caste) remains prevalent.
   • Arranged marriages continue, but with variations:
     • Parental Choice: Without consulting the couple.
     • Self-Choice: The couple chooses, with or without parental consent.
     • Combined Choice: Parents choose but seek the couple’s consent.