UNIT 8 TRIBES AND ETHNICITY

Readalhunt August 17, 2024

Ethnicity and Tribes in India

Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

  • Explain Concepts:
    • Understand ethnicity and tribes in India.
  • Describe External Features:
    • Identify important external features of tribes.
  • Discuss Relationships:
    • Explore the relationships between tribes and ethnicity.
  • Manifestation of Ethnicity:
    • Analyze how ethnicity manifests in tribes.

Introduction

  • Previous Topics:
    • Religious and language diversity in India.
  • Current Focus:
    • Ethnic and tribal social formations and their diversity.

Concepts of Tribe and Ethnicity

1. Tribe:

  • Definition: A group with a distinct social organization, often with common cultural traits and traditions.
  • Indian Context: Tribal groups in India are recognized by their unique socio-cultural and economic characteristics.

2. Ethnicity:

  • Definition: Social grouping based on shared cultural traits, ancestry, and sometimes language or religion.
  • Tribal Context: Ethnicity often shapes and defines tribal identities and social structures.

External Features of Indian Tribes

1. Geographic Distribution:

  • Regions: Tribes are spread across various geographic locations in India, including the northeastern states, central India, and parts of southern India.

2. Racial and Linguistic Affinities:

  • Racial Diversity: Different tribes have distinct racial backgrounds.
  • Languages: Tribes often speak languages that are unique to their regions.

3. Demographic Features:

  • Population Size: Varies widely among different tribal groups.
  • Density: Some tribes are concentrated in specific areas, while others are more dispersed.

4. Economic Pursuits:

  • Agriculture: Many tribes practice subsistence farming.
  • Hunting and Gathering: Some tribes rely on hunting, gathering, and fishing.
  • Crafts and Trade: Certain tribes are known for their artisanal crafts and trade activities.

5. Isolation and Interaction:

  • Isolation: Some tribes live in relative isolation from mainstream society.
  • Interaction: Other tribes interact frequently with neighboring communities and have adapted to external influences.

Tribe and Ethnicity Relationship

1. Interconnection:

  • Ethnic Identity: Tribes often define their ethnic identity through distinct cultural practices, traditions, and languages.
  • Tribal Structure: Social structure within tribes reflects ethnic identity and heritage.

2. Ethnicity in Tribes:

  • Cultural Manifestation: Ethnicity manifests through traditional customs, rituals, and social organization.
  • Boundary Markers: External features like dress, language, and rituals act as boundary markers defining tribal identity.

Socio-Economic Changes

1. Modernization:

  • Impact: Changes in economic pursuits, education, and technology are affecting tribal social structures.

2. Government Policies:

  • Affirmative Action: Policies aimed at improving the socio-economic conditions of tribal groups.
  • Development Programs: Initiatives for tribal welfare and integration into mainstream society.

Tribes in India

Overview of Scheduled Tribes

  • Number and Population (2011 Census):

    • Groups Recognized: 705
    • Percentage of Total Population: 8.6%
    • Absolute Population: 10,42,81,034

  • Definition of Tribe:

    • Origin: Latin word ‘tribus’ used by Romans for social divisions.
    • Current Meaning: In India, refers to a category of people recognized as Scheduled Tribes.

  • Characteristics:

    • Isolation: Relatively isolated and closed groups.
    • Economic Status: Often economically backward and exploited by non-tribals.

Historical Context

1. Ancient and Medieval Periods:

  • Tribal Names: No single term for tribes; specific names used such as Gond, Santhal, Bhil.
  • Historical Presence:
    • South India: Kurumba, Irula, Paniya.
    • Central India: Asur, Saora, Oraon, Gond, Santhal, Bhil.
    • North-East India: Bodo, Ahom.
  • Kingdoms and Communities:
    • Gond: Had large kingdoms in Central India.
    • Ahom: Kingdom in North-East India.
    • Banjara: Nomadic trading community.

2. British Period:

  • British Expansion:
    • Objective: Establish rule, exploit resources.
    • New Settlers: Forest contractors, labourers, officials, moneylenders.
  • Regulations:
    • 1833 Regulation: Protected indigenous populations in Chotanagpur.
    • 1874 Scheduled Area Regulation Act: Special arrangements for tribal areas.
    • 1919 Act: Introduced wholly and partially excluded areas.
    • 1935 Act: Further established policies for tribal protection.
  • Terminology Confusion: Animists, hill and forest tribes, primitive tribes, and tribe.

3. Post-Independence Period:

  • Constitutional Recognition:
    • 1950 List: 212 tribes.
    • 2003 List: 533 tribes.
  • Constitutional Status:
    • Definition: Not provided; listed by presidential orders.
    • Scheduled Tribes: Administrative concept used for protection and development.

Concepts of Tribe and Ethnicity

1. Tribe:

  • Definition: Groups with distinct social, cultural, and economic traits.
  • Identification: Recognized through administrative lists.

2. Ethnicity:

  • Definition: Social grouping based on shared cultural traits, ancestry, and sometimes language or religion.
  • Relation to Tribe: Ethnicity is integral to tribal identity.

Concepts Associated with Ethnicity

1. Ethnic and Ethnic Groups

  • Ethnic:

    • Origin: Derived from Greek word ‘ethno’ meaning ‘nation’.
    • Modern Use: Refers to groups distinguished by features like race, language, or culture.

  • Ethnic Group:

    • Definition: A cultural group sharing:
      • Common language
      • Region
      • Religion
      • Race
      • Endogamy (marriage within the group)
      • Customs and beliefs
      • Common descent
    • Examples: Jews, Negroes, Japanese, Muslims, Munda, Oraon.

  • Importance:

    • Defines individual social identity.
    • Group membership is often restrictive, though conversions (e.g., religious) can alter group boundaries.

2. Ethnicity

  • Definition:

    • Cohen (1974): Ethnicity is “interaction between cultural groups within common social contexts”.
    • Key Aspects:
      • Intra-ethnic relations (within the same ethnic group)
      • Inter-ethnic relations (between different ethnic groups)
      • Significance: Ethnicity emerges from the need to establish and assert ethnic identity.

3. Ethnic Identity

  • Definition:
    • Reflects both:
      • Likeness: Common traits within the ethnic group.
      • Uniqueness: Differentiates from other ethnic groups.
  • Factors of Ethnic Identification:

    • Diagram:

       NATIONALITY
   |
 LANGUAGE
   |
 RELIGION
   |
 REGION
   |
 RACE
   |
 TRIBE/CASTE
   |
 SELF

    • Note: The importance of tribe or caste may vary based on social context (e.g., in India).

4. Ethnic Boundary

  • Definition:

    • Social boundary that doesn’t always match territorial boundaries.
    • Implications:
      • In-Group vs. Out-Group: Distinguishes between members of one's own ethnic group and others.
      • Mutual Understanding: Limited to within the boundary; outsiders are not expected to share the same understanding or interests.

  • Diagram:

      [Ethnic Group]
      /   \
     /     \
  In-Group  Out-Group

5. Majority and Minority Groups

  • Majority Groups:

    • Characteristics:
      • Numerical superiority.
      • Control over economic and political resources.
      • Enjoy privileges and advantages.

  • Minority Groups:

    • Characteristics:
      • Lower numerical strength.
      • Often immigrants or subordinated in terms of resources.

  • Important Note:

    • Historical Evidence: Minorities can dominate or control resources despite being numerically inferior (e.g., British in India, White minority in South Africa during apartheid).

  • Diagram:

      [Majority Group]
      /   \
     /     \
Numerical  Control Over
Strength   Resources

    [Minority Group]
      /   \
     /     \
Numerical  Subordinate
Strength   Position

Features of Tribes in India

1. Geographical Distribution

Tribes in India can be grouped into five broad geographical regions based on ecology:

  • Himalayan Region:

    • Tribes: Gaddi, Jaunsari, Naga

  • Middle India:

    • Tribes: Munda, Santal

  • Western India:

    • Tribes: Bhil, Grasia

  • South Indian Region:

    • Tribes: Toda, Chenchu

  • Islands Region:

    • Tribes: Onge (Bay of Bengal), Minicoyans (Arabian Sea)

  • Diagram:

    [Geographical Distribution]
       /    |    \ 
     /      |      \  
 [Himalayan] [Middle] [Western]
       |        |        |
  [South]   [Islands]

2. Racial and Linguistic Affinities

  • Historical Context:

    • Tribes have migrated over time, representing almost all races within Indian populations.
    • Physical features and linguistic traits can offer insights into their migration patterns and historical connections.

  • Three Main Racial Divisions:

    • Proto-Australoids:

      • Physical Traits: Dark skin, sunken nose, lower forehead.
      • Tribes: Gond (Madhya Pradesh), Munda (Chotanagpur), Ho (Jharkhand).

    • Mongoloids:

      • Physical Traits: Light skin, broad head and face, low nose bridge, slanting eyes with upper eyelid fold.
      • Tribes: Bhotiya (Central Himalayas), Wanchu (Arunachal Pradesh), Naga (Nagaland), Khasi (Meghalaya).

    • Negrito:

      • Physical Traits: Dark skin (sometimes bluish), round head, broad nose, frizzy hair.
      • Tribes: Kadar (Kerala), Onge (Little Andaman), Jarwa (Andaman Islands).

  • Diagram:

       [Racial Divisions]
       /     |     \
     /       |       \
[Proto-  [Mongoloids] [Negrito]
Australoids]

Features of Tribes in India

1. Linguistic Affiliations

  • Overview:

    • Indian tribes speak 105 different languages and 225 subsidiary languages.
    • Languages reflect social structures and values of tribes.
    • Classified into four major language families.

  • Major Language Families:

    1. Austro-Asiatic Family:

      • Branches:
        • Mon-Khmer: Spoken by Khasi, Nicobari.
        • Munda: Includes Santhali, Gondi, Kharia.

    2. Tibeto-Chinese Family:

      • Sub-families:
        • Siamese-Chinese: Example - Khamti (North-Eastern India).
        • Tibeto-Burman: Includes languages spoken by Nagas, Lepchas.

    3. Indo-European Family:

      • Examples: Hajong, Bhili.

    4. Dravidian Family:

      • Examples: Languages spoken by Yeruva (Mysore), Oraon (Chotanagpur).

  • Diagram:

       [Linguistic Families]
       /       |        \        \  
     /         |         \        \
[Austro-  [Tibeto-   [Indo-   [Dravidian]
Asiatic]   Chinese]   European]

  • Note: Mutual intelligibility is not guaranteed within a family. For example, Naga tribes have about 50 distinct languages.

2. Demographic Features

  • Population Size Variability:

    • Small Populations: Toda (Nilgiris), Birjia (Bihar), Sentinelese (Andaman), Great Andamanese.
    • Large Populations: Gond (Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh), Bhil (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh), Santal (Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal).
    • Intermediate Populations: Dubla (Gujarat), Chenchu (South), Irula (South), Boro-Kachari (North-East).
    • Small Groups: Toda, Kota (Nilgiris), Birhor (Bihar).

  • Distribution Impact:

    • Example: Kurumba tribe distributed across Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka faces different development programs and language policies in each state.

  • Diagram:

       [Population Size]
     /        |      \ 
    /         |       \
[Small]   [Large]   [Intermediate]

3. Isolation and Interaction

  • Historical Context:

    • Tribes have not always been isolated; they were part of wider economic and political networks.
    • Examples of interaction:
      1. Jenu-Kuruba (Karnataka): Supplied elephants and forest goods, participated in regional practices.
      2. Toda (Nilgiri): Worshipped distant deity, interacted with neighbouring peasants.
      3. Munda (19th Century): Integrated socially and economically with neighbours.

  • Roles:

    • Bridge: Facilitated interaction between powerful neighbours (e.g., Apa Tani of Arunachal Pradesh).
    • Buffer: Kept powerful groups separated.

  • Fully Isolated Tribes:

    • Examples: Jarwa and Sentinelese (Andaman and Nicobar Islands).

  • Diagram:

       [Isolation & Interaction]
      /        |        \
    /          |         \
[Bridge]    [Buffer]  [Isolated]

Economic Pursuits Among Tribes in India

1. Food Gatherers and Hunters

  • Description:

    • Original form of human economy.
    • Very few tribes still practice it exclusively.
    • Example: Cholanaicken of Kerala.

2. Shifting Cultivators

  • Description:

    • Process:
      • Select forest land, cut trees, burn vegetation, sow seeds.
      • Cultivate for a few years, then abandon for a long period.
    • Practiced in: North-East India, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh.
    • Example: Khasi of Meghalaya.

3. Settled Agriculturists

  • Description:

    • Regions: Middle, Western, Southern India.
    • Practices: Simple cultivation techniques.
    • Trend: Increasing integration into wider economic and social networks.

4. Artisans

  • Description:

    • Crafts include basket making, tool making, spinning, weaving.
    • Examples: Kota (Nilgiris), Birhor (Bihar).
    • Craftwork: Often family-based but involves community-level raw material collection.

  • Art Example:

    • Gond Art:
      • Vibrant colors, geometric designs.
      • Depicts nature, animals, significant events.
      • Traditionally painted on walls; now also for commercial purposes.

5. Pastoralists and Cattle Herders

  • Description:

    • Examples: Toda (Nilgiris), Gujjar, Bakarwal, Gaddi (Himachal Pradesh).
    • Practices: Move with cattle for pasture, dairy products exchanged for other goods.

6. Folk Artists

  • Description:

    • Perform acrobatics, entertain, provide services.
    • Some lead nomadic lives; others periodically move to clients.
    • Example: Pradhan of Madhya Pradesh – genealogists, midwives, entertainers.

7. Wage Labourers

  • Description:

    • Shift from traditional occupations due to plantations, mining, and industrialization.
    • Examples: Santhal in coal mines, Chotanagpur tribes in tea plantations.

8. Recent Economic Changes

  • Key Points:

    • Dwindling forest resources; increased reservation.
    • Loss of land to agriculture, industries, big projects.
    • Rise of market economy; traditional skills becoming redundant.
    • Shift to producing for market rather than self-consumption.
    • Need for new skills, technology, and capital.

Manifestation of Ethnicity

1. Linguistic States Formation

  • Historical Context:

    • Post-Independence: Demand for states or provinces based on linguistic identity.
    • 1956: State Reorganisation Committee redrew state boundaries on linguistic basis.

  • Impact:

    • Reinforced regional and linguistic identity.
    • Ethnic identity became a key factor in political demands.
    • Formation of state-level political parties associated with ethnic elements.

2. Jharkhand Movement

  • Context:

    • Region: Central India (Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa).
    • Objective: Formation of a separate state for tribals.
    • Outcome: Jharkhand state created in 2000.

  • Causes:

    • Land Alienation: Tribals' land was taken away.
    • Exploitation: Resources exploited without adequate benefits to tribals.
    • Political Neglect: National level ignored tribal issues.
    • Identity Threat: Fear of losing tribal identity in a non-tribal majority.

  • Arguments for Separate State:

    • Geographical Concentration: Large number of tribals in the area.
    • Cultural Differences: Different mental make-up, language, culture, and values.
    • Resource Disparity: Minimal benefits from the wealth and resources extracted.

  • Frustration and Solidarity:

    • Marginalisation: Tribals felt marginalized.
    • Internal Solidarity: Increased tribal unity.
    • Outgroup Antagonism: Hostility towards non-tribals ("Dikus").

  • Change in Definition of Dikus:

    • Originally: Zamindars and non-tribal employees.
    • Later: Upper-caste non-tribals.
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