UNIT 7 CASTE AND CLASS

Caste and Class

Objectives

• Define caste and class as institutions.
• Explain caste mobility through Sanskritization.
• Discuss classes in rural and urban India and their uneven growth.
• Analyze the relationship between caste and class.

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1. Understanding Caste and Class

• Caste:

  • Definition: A social institution and ideology in India that organizes individuals into a hierarchical system based on birth.
  • Institutional Role: Provides a framework for arranging social groups according to their status and position in society.
  • Ideological Role: A system of values that legitimizes and reinforces social inequality.
  • Traditional Society: Seen as a "closed system" with fixed roles and limited mobility.

• Class:

  • Definition: A social stratification system based on wealth, income, education, and occupation.
  • Modern Society: Considered an "open system" where individuals can change their class position based on their abilities and efforts.

2. Caste Mobility: Sanskritization

• Sanskritization:
  • Concept: Process by which lower caste groups adopt the practices and values of higher castes to improve their social status.
  • Objective: Achieve upward mobility within the caste system by emulating the higher castes' lifestyle, rituals, and cultural practices.

3. Classes in Rural and Urban India

• Rural India:

  • Characteristics: Predominantly agricultural, with significant class distinctions based on land ownership, occupation, and social status.
  • Uneven Growth: Economic opportunities and class mobility are limited, with a strong influence of traditional caste hierarchies.

• Urban India:

  • Characteristics: Industrial and service-based economy, with class distinctions influenced by education, occupation, and wealth.
  • Uneven Growth: Urban areas show greater class mobility but still exhibit significant disparities based on access to resources and opportunities.

4. Relationship Between Caste and Class

• Caste as Social Stratification:

  • Historical Context: Caste has historically been the dominant form of social stratification in India.
  • Impact on Class: Caste influences class by determining access to resources, occupations, and social status.

• Class Dynamics:

  • Modernization: Economic development and modernization have introduced new forms of class stratification.
  • Interaction: The caste system and class system interact, with caste continuing to play a role in social mobility and economic opportunities.

Varna and Caste

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1. Varna Model

• Definition:

  • Varna: Sanskrit term meaning "color," historically referring to distinctions between Arya (noble) and Dasa (servants).
  • Varna System: Divides Hindu society into four main orders:
    • Brahmana: Priests and scholars.
    • Kshatriya: Rulers and soldiers.
    • Vaishya: Merchants and landowners.
    • Shudra: Peasants, laborers, and servants.

• Characteristics:

  • Twice-Born (Dvija): Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas, eligible for sacred thread initiation.
  • Untouchables: Not included in Varna system, considered outside the four-fold classification.

• Macro-Structural Framework:

  • Varna model offers a broad framework for the caste system but does not encompass the full diversity of castes in India.

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2. Caste System

• Hierarchy:

  • Hierarchy: Caste system is based on ritual purity and pollution.
  • Variation: Higher castes are generally better off, but economic, political, and educational status may not align with ritual status.

• Endogamy:

  • Definition: Marriage within one's own caste or sub-caste.
  • Significance: Maintains caste boundaries and preserves the caste system.

• Association with Hereditary Occupation:

  • Traditional Occupations: Each caste was linked with specific occupations, e.g., Chamar castes were involved in leather work, considered untouchable.

• Restrictions and Distinctions:

  • Food and Social Relations: Restrictions on social interaction and food-sharing between different castes.
  • Customs: Distinctive customs, dress, and speech for each caste.
  • Civil and Religious Privileges: Different castes enjoy specific privileges and face certain disabilities.

• Untouchability:

  • Impurity: Untouchables are considered the most ritually impure.
  • Restrictions: Historically faced segregation and exclusion from upper-caste spaces.

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3. Caste Dynamics

• Caste Councils (Panchayats):

  • Role: Caste councils, led by senior members, handle internal disputes and enforce caste norms.
  • Power: Ability to excommunicate members who violate caste rules.

• Jajmani System:

• Definition: System where each caste had a near-monopoly over its hereditary occupation, interacting with other castes for economic and social needs.

Nature of Caste and Sanskritisation

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Nature of Caste

• Traditional View:

  • Closed System: Caste system traditionally viewed as a rigid, hierarchical structure with limited mobility.
  • Hierarchy: Rigid social hierarchy with fixed positions, limiting social mobility.

• Criticism:

  • Conceptual Limitations: The closed system model has been critiqued for not accommodating the dynamic nature of caste and social change.

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Sanskritisation

• Definition:

  • Sanskritisation: A concept developed by sociologist M.N. Srinivas.
  • Meaning: The process by which a lower caste or tribal group changes its customs, rituals, and way of life to align with higher, often twice-born castes, aiming for a higher social position.
  • Broader Scope: Includes imitation of customs and ideologies beyond Brahmin practices.

• Key Aspects:

  • Dynamic Nature: Sanskritisation highlights the fluid and adaptable nature of the caste system, showing that caste hierarchies are not entirely static.
  • Claims for Higher Status: Lower castes attempt to elevate their status by adopting practices of higher castes.

• Empirical Evidence:

  • K.M. Pannikar’s Study: Historically, many Kshatriya castes originated from lower castes who ascended by gaining power.
  • Economic and Political Factors: Success in Sanskritisation is often linked to improved economic and political conditions of the caste or group seeking upward mobility.

• Srinivas’s Observation:

• Variation in Mobility: Not all lower castes succeed in Sanskritisation; success often depends on improved economic and political circumstances.

Social Classes in India

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Definition of Social Class:

• Social Class:

  • A social group not legally or religiously defined.
  • Stratum of people with similar social positions.
  • Determined by wealth, income, education, and occupation.
  • Open System: Membership based on meeting basic criteria.

• Features:

  • Hierarchical Ranking: Classes ranked by wealth and income.
  • Lifestyle Differences: Expressed through different life styles and consumption patterns.
  • Characteristic of Industrial Societies: Example includes capitalist and working classes.

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Pre-British Class System:

• Historical Context:
  • Less Pronounced: Class dimension was less noticeable before British rule.
  • Village Community: Self-sufficient, minimal surplus, less class differentiation.
  • Rulers and Ruled: Clear class division between kings, courtiers (Zamindars, Jagirdars), and subjects.

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Impact of British Rule on Class Formation:

• a) Change in Agriculture:

  • Land Reforms: Introduced Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari settlements.
  • Individual Ownership: Land became private property, could be mortgaged, bought, or sold.
  • Commercialisation: Stimulated trade and commerce.

• b) Trade and Commerce:

  • Raw Materials and Goods: Focus on supplying raw materials to Britain and consuming British manufactured goods.
  • Effect on Indigenous Economy: Negative impact on local handicrafts and economy.

• c) Development of Railways and Industry:

  • Expansion: Rapid development of railways and roads.
  • Purpose: To meet raw material needs of British industries and improve mobility.
  • Investment: Enabled investment of British capital and facilitated creation of Indian industries.

• d) State and Administrative System:

  • Administrative Machinery: Large state machinery required educated staff.
  • Western Education: Establishment of schools, colleges, and universities to cater to administrative needs and growing economy.

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Uneven Growth of Social Classes:

• Consequences of British Rule:
• Uneven Development: The British rule led to uneven growth of social classes in India.

Growth of Social Classes in India

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Genesis of Social Classes:

• Historical Context:

  • Pre-British India: Class dimension was less pronounced; caste system overshadowed class distinctions.
  • British Rule: Marked the emergence of new social classes.

• Regional and Community Variations:

  • Bengal: Emergence of zamindars and tenants; early industrial enterprises.
  • Bombay: Similar developments as Bengal in industry and administrative reforms.
  • Economic and Social Disparities: Growth of social classes uneven across regions and communities.

• Community-Specific Developments:

  • Baniyas: Early adopters of modern commerce and banking.
  • Brahmans: First to engage in modern education and professional sectors.

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Social Classes in Rural India:

• a) Landlords:

  • Impact of Land Reforms (1950s):
    • Zamindars: Lost tax rights; reduced landholdings; many transitioned to active farming or became rentiers.
    • Outcome: Breakdown of economic, political, and social supremacy.

• b) Peasant Proprietors:

  • Categories:
    • Rich Peasants: Large landholdings; supervise cultivation; no fieldwork.
    • Middle Peasants: Medium landholdings; self-sufficient; use family labor.
    • Poor Peasants: Small holdings; supplement income by working as laborers; significant part of rural population.

• c) Tenants:

  • Types:
    • Tenants: Occupancy rights; not easily evicted.
    • Sub-tenants: Some security but liable to eviction.
    • Sharecroppers: Least secure; vulnerable to eviction; main tenant class segment today.
  • Reforms Impact: Reduction in tenancy and sharecropping; limited benefits to sharecroppers.

• d) Agricultural Labourers:

  • Types:
    • Landholding Labourers: Small land plots plus labor.
    • Landless Labourers: Depend solely on labor for livelihood.
  • Wages: Low; paid in kind (food grains) or cash.
  • Legislative Measures: Abolition of bonded labor, minimum wage structure; ineffective in practice.

• e) Artisans:

• Examples: Carpenters (Badhai), ironsmiths (Lohar), potters (Kumhar).
• Impact of British Rule: Struggled to compete with industrial goods; some served multiple villages under the Jajmani system.

Social Classes in Urban India

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Categories of Urban Social Classes:

1. Capitalists (Commercial and Industrial) Classes:

   • Historical Context:
     • British Rule Impact: Transformation to market-oriented production.
     • Expansion: Growth of internal and world market connections.
   • Outcome:
     • Commercial Middle Class: Emergence of traders and merchants involved in export-import business.

2. Corporate Sector:

   • Definition:
     • Public Sector: Organizations owned and controlled by the government.
     • Private Sector: Organizations owned by private individuals or entities.
   • Categories of Private Sector Firms:
     • Individually Owned Firms
     • Collectively Owned Firms:
       • Partnership Firms
       • Joint Hindu Family
       • Joint-Stock Companies
       • Co-operatives
   • Significance:
     • Joint-Stock Companies: Key component of the corporate sector.
     • Post-1990s: Expansion and diversification in the Indian economy.

3. Professional Classes:

   • Growth Factors:
     • Industrialization & Urbanization: Increased employment opportunities in various sectors.
     • State’s Role: Creation of complex bureaucratic structures and institutional setups.
   • Examples:
     • Categories: Bureaucrats, management executives, technocrats, doctors, lawyers, teachers, journalists.
     • Skills Required: Education, training, and skill development.

4. Petty Traders and Shopkeepers:

   • Development:
     • Modern Cities & Towns: Growth aligned with urban development.
   • Function:
     • Role: Connects producers and consumers by buying from wholesalers and selling to the public.
   • Types:
     • Self-Employed: Shopkeepers, traders, vendors, hawkers.
     • Informal Sector Workers: Semi-skilled and unskilled labor.

5. Working Classes:

• Historical Origin:
  • British Rule Impact: Formation due to modern industries, railways, and plantations.
• Growth Factors:
• Industrial Expansion: Growth in factories, mining, and transport sectors.
• Composition: Primarily comprised of pauperized peasants and ruined artisans.

Relationship Between Caste and Class in India

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1. Perspectives on Caste and Class

a) Caste and Class as Polar Opposites:

• Western Scholarly View:
  • Caste: Groups ranked in a rigid hierarchy based on status.
  • Class: Individuals ranked in a fluid, open stratification system.
  • Change Observed: Transition from caste to class; from hierarchy to stratification.
• Criticism:
  • Simplicity: Caste described as rigid and class as fluid is oversimplified.
  • Constructs: Caste associated with rigidity, status, and pollution-purity; class with individualism and competition.
  • Reality Check: Both caste and class are real, empirical phenomena and cannot be viewed purely in isolation.

b) Caste-Class Nexus Approach:

• Definition:

  • Nexus: Connection between caste and class, not necessarily symmetrical.
  • Framework: Integrates both caste and class to understand social reality.

• Key Observations:

  • Andre Beteille: Caste, class, and power overlap but also cut across in specific contexts. Some aspects of life are becoming 'caste-free'.
  • Kathleen Gough: Interconnections between caste, kinship, family, and production forces.
  • Structural Reality: Caste and class often represent similar structural realities.

Caste and Class Dynamics

1. Caste and Class Overlap:

• Caste as Class:

  • Interest Groups: Castes act as economic and political interest groups.
  • Economic Activities: Caste associations engage in activities for their members.

• Class Conflicts:

  • Caste Conflicts: Often correspond to class conflicts; high castes align with high classes and vice versa.

2. Integration of Caste and Class:

• Interdependence:
  • Integration: Caste and class are intertwined and mutually influential.
  • Beyond Simplistic Views: Understanding requires a framework that incorporates both systems.