UNIT 3 NATION, STATE AND SOCIETY

Nation, State, and Society in the Indian Context

Introduction to Concepts:

• Nation, State, and Society: These are distinct but interconnected concepts.
  • Society: Exists long before the emergence of the state or nation.
  • State: A political organization that may or may not coincide with the nation.
  • Nation: A collective identity often linked to a state, but not always synonymous with it.

Transition from Stateless to State Societies:

• Stateless Societies: Existed in early human history and in parts of India before state formations.
• State Societies: Emerged as a revolutionary change, bringing organized political structures.
• In India: The transition to state societies did not align with the creation of a nation-state.

Emergence of the Indian Nation-State:

• Pre-British India: Consisted of various states, principalities, and dynasties, with no unified nation-state concept.
• Colonial Influence: The idea of India as a unified nation-state began to form during British rule.
• Role of Anti-Colonial Struggle: The fight against British rule was instrumental in shaping the idea of a unified Indian nation-state.

Relationship Between Nation, State, and Society in Colonial India:

• Colonial Rule: Introduced modern institutions (bureaucracy, education, law) that brought diverse Indian societies under a single framework.
• Unified Identity: The British exploitation and the struggle against it helped foster a sense of national identity among Indians.
• Post-Colonial India: The foundations laid during the colonial period paved the way for the formation of the Indian nation-state.

Stateless Societies in India

Definition of Stateless Societies:

• Stateless Societies: Societies without centralized political structures or formal agencies of social control.
  • Political Order: Guided by kinship and lineage systems.
  • Contrast with State Societies: Emerged with the Agricultural Revolution, allowing surplus production to support non-producing elites.

Agriculture, Surplus, and State Formation:

• Pre-Agricultural Societies: No surplus production, hence no state formation.
• Agricultural Transition: Despite the shift to agriculture, many Indian societies remained non-state, kinship-based, with no concept of land ownership or revenue.
• Scholarly Views on State Formation:
  • Gordon Childe: Technological advancements triggered state formation.
  • Ester Boserup: Hierarchy and the need to pay rent pushed technological revolution and surplus production.

Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization):

• Central Political Authority: Implied by uniform city construction, fortifications (e.g., Dholavira), and evidence of a standing army.
• Debate on the State Nature: Scholars debate the presence of a state structure in this civilization.
• Disappearance of Indus Civilization: Reasons still debated, history largely undeciphered; focus shifts to Vedic society.

Vedic Society:

• Early Vedic Society: Primarily pastoral-nomadic, guided by lineage system, no state structure until later Rigvedic period.
• Social Stratification:
  • Caste System: Emerged in the later Rigvedic period; society divided into four varnas, with lineage central to caste formation.
  • Sudras: Added as a fourth category but excluded from lineage origin, highlighting social exclusion.

Debates on Aryan Conquest:

• Technological and Military Capability: Aryans unlikely to have stormed the fortified Indus cities, as they lacked the required technology and military strength.
• Aryan as a Linguistic Category: More linguistic than racial, with Arya signifying high rank.
• Ambedkar's View: Division of society was political and flexible.

Theories on Harappan Civilization's Decline:

• Irfan Habib's View: Invasion and conquest theory supported by the possession of the horse and chariot by Aryans, indicating pre-existing aristocracy, challenging the idea of an early egalitarian Rigvedic society.

The Transition from Stateless to State Society in India

Transition Overview:

• Key Juncture: The shift from stateless to state society occurred when agricultural production and social relations reached a level that allowed for surplus production and the maintenance of a standing army.
• Period: This transition is depicted in the Mahabharata (~1st century AD), highlighting the emergence of small feudal kingdoms.

Kautilya’s Arthashastra:

• Seven Constituent Elements of States:
  1. King (Sovereign Power)
  2. Ministers
  3. People
  4. Fortified City
  5. Treasury
  6. Army
  7. Ally

Agricultural Surplus and State Formation:

• Iron and Rice Cultivation: The use of iron tools and rice cultivation in the Ganga Valley were crucial in producing the agricultural surplus needed for state formation.
• Ganga Valley: The first republics of ancient India, called ganasanghas, developed here due to the availability of perennial water sources.
• Urban Civilizations:
  • Mesopotamia: Developed along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.
  • Indus Valley: Emerged along the Indus River and its tributaries.
  • Doab (Ganga-Yamuna Plains): Provided ideal conditions for cultivation and surplus production.

Development of State Systems:

• Dual State Systems:
  • Ganasanghas: Republics with clan and lineage-based organization.
  • Monarchies: Varna (caste) structure was prominent.
• Emergence of Magadha: The first empire in India, developed around 1000-600 BCE in the mid-Ganga Valley.
  • Buddhist Scriptures: Offer insights into the social organization of this period.

Social and State Organization:

• Agricultural Production: Increased production led to the development of cities, states, and complex class societies.
• Sixteen Mahajanapadas: Establishment of these major kingdoms with standing armies was possible due to surplus production.
• Mauryan Empire: Consolidation under Ashoka demonstrated the role of agricultural surplus and social organization in state formation.
  • Caste System: Division of labor and laborers played a crucial role in societal organization.

Absence of Nation-State:

• Ancient Empires: Despite the centralization and administrative structures of empires like the Mauryan and Gupta, the concept of India as a nation-state did not exist.
• British Colonialism: Brought unprecedented political and economic consolidation, shaping the modern idea of the Indian nation-state.
  • Colonial Rule: Involved direct rule in some states and control over around 600 autocratic princely states.
  • Anti-Colonial Struggle: Strengthened the idea of India as a unified nation-state.

Impact of World War II:

• Nation-State Emergence: The war contributed to the rise of nation-states by fostering a sense of belonging, marked by redefined territories, and ethnic and cultural identities.

Nation, State, and Society in Colonial India

Overview of Modern India:

• India as a Nation-State:
  • Comprises 29 states and 7 union territories.
  • Governed by a defined territory with a flag, national anthem, constitution, and codified legal norms for its citizens.
• Post-1947 Boundaries:
  • Boundaries drawn based on British conquest, not necessarily aligned with historical, cultural, or ethnic identities.
  • Raises questions about the true nature of India as an entity and the sense of belonging among its people.

Colonial Influence on Indian Unity:

• Pre-Colonial India:
  • Consisted of feudal kingdoms and fiefdoms with limited geographical control.
  • Example: Mauryan Empire consolidated territory but did not create a nation.
• Colonial India:
  • Political unification largely a result of British colonialism and anti-colonial struggles.
  • Early nationalists struggled to define India as a unified nation due to its diversity.

British Perspectives on India:

• John Strachey:
  • Asserted that India lacked unity in physical, political, social, or religious terms before the British.
  • Stated that there was no "Indian nation" or unified "people of India."
• Sir John R. Seeley:
  • Described India as a geographical expression, akin to Europe or Africa, rather than a unified nation.

Nationalist Response and Unity:

• Challenges of Defining Nationhood:
  • Nationalists invoked the essential unity of India but faced difficulties due to religious diversity and regional differences.
• Seven Ways to Define Indian Unity (Oommen, 2003):
  1. Ancient Civilizational Entity
  2. Composite Culture
  3. Multi-National Polity
  4. Religious Entity
  5. Territorial Entity: Populated by multiple religious communities.
  6. Geographical/Linguistic Collectivity
  7. Unity of Great and Little Nationalisms
  • Missing Elements: Political and economic factors specific to colonization, which were crucial for India’s emergence as a nation.

Key Points:

• Colonial Influence: The idea of India as a nation-state developed largely due to British colonialism and the struggle against it.
• Diversity and Unity: India's unity was a complex and multifaceted concept, influenced by its ancient civilization, composite culture, and colonial history.
• Nationhood Challenge: Early nationalists faced the challenge of uniting India’s diverse religious, cultural, and linguistic communities under a single national identity.

Political, Legal, and Economic Unification in Colonial India

Political Unification:

• Centralized State by British:
  • The British conquest led to the establishment of a centralized state, achieving a level of political and administrative unification never before seen in India.
  • Pre-British India was divided into numerous feudal states, often engaged in territorial conflicts.
  • Attempts at unification by rulers like Ashoka, Samudragupta, and Akbar were limited and largely nominal.
• Challenges in Pre-British India:
  • Political unity was difficult due to the absence of a unified economy and communication systems.
  • There was a geographical and religio-cultural unity among Hindus, but this did not translate into political unity.

Legal Unification:

• Uniform Legal System:
  • The British established a uniform reign of law across India, applicable to all citizens, enforced by a hierarchical judicial system.
  • Introduction of a new education system to support the economic and administrative structure.
• Administrative Unification:
  • The British created a hierarchically graded public service system, bringing significant portions of social and economic life under a universally operating legal framework.

Economic Unification:

• Capitalist Economic Transformation:
  • British rule introduced a capitalist economy, breaking down separate village economies and integrating India economically through exchange relations.
  • Commercial crops like sugarcane, tea, coffee, jute, and rubber were grown for the market, linking India to the global market.
• Legal and Monetary Reforms:
  • New laws were enacted to regulate the complex economic relations that emerged, including contracts, land transactions, and international trade.
  • Introduction of a uniform currency system.

Land Relations and Ownership:

• Pre-British Land System:
  • No class of landed feudal nobility with proprietary rights existed.
  • Nobles had the right to collect land revenue but were not landowners.
  • Villages held collective rights over land, and revenue assessment was village-based.
• British Land Reforms:
  • The British introduced private land ownership, replacing traditional village rights.
  • Two forms of property in land were created: landlordism and individual peasant proprietorship.
  • Collection of revenue from landlords was more economical for the British, and a new class of landlords supported British rule for strategic reasons.
  • These changes had a far-reaching impact, contributing to the economic and national consolidation of India.

Impact on National Consolidation:

• Economic Integration:
• The capitalist transformation and new land system contributed to the material foundation for national consolidation.
• The economic unification of India also linked it more closely to the global economy.

Anti-Colonial Movements and the Idea of the Nation

Early Conception of India:

• Initial Awareness:
  • India as a country was vaguely conceived about 2500 years ago.
  • Over time, Indians recognized cultural commonalities and a sense of unity despite religious and linguistic diversity.
• Transformation into a Nation-State:
  • The resistance to colonialism and the adoption of modern democratic and socialist ideas were crucial in transforming India from just a geographical entity into a nation-state.
  • India’s nationhood is seen as a product of the people’s consciousness, not merely natural or circumstantial.

Impact of British Colonialism:

• Patriarchy and Hierarchy:
  • British rule entrenched patriarchy, marginalization, and hierarchical systems.
  • Land and resources were transferred to male ownership, reducing the rights of women and the lower castes.
  • The British supported the upper castes and landholders, further marginalizing lower castes, tribes, and the landless poor.
• Exclusion in Nation Formation:
  • At the time of India's independence, the nation was predominantly Hindu, Brahmanical, and upper class, excluding marginalized groups like lower castes, tribes, and women.
  • These groups continue to struggle for their identity within the nation-state.

Post-Independence Consolidation:

• Territorial Integration:
  • After independence in 1947, the consolidation of the nation was actively pursued.
  • Princely States: Integrated into the Indian Union through:
    • Merger: With adjacent provinces.
    • Grouping: Into separate administrative units.
    • Centrally Administered Areas: Some states transformed into these areas.
  • The process involved the accession of princely states to India and their adjustment into a unified administrative structure.
• Privy Purse:
  • Initially, rulers were granted compensation for handing over their estates, which was later abolished by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, arguing they should be treated like any other citizen.

Challenges and National Identity:

• Path of Consolidation:
  • India has been on a path of building a unified national identity.
  • National Institutions: Such as the Armed Forces, National Stock Exchange, Election Commission, Parliament, and Supreme Court represent the nation-state.
• Ongoing Challenges:
  • Regionalism, Communalism, and Divisive Politics: These issues hinder the emergence of a strongly unified state.
  • Economic Disparities: Stark differences in economic status also pose challenges to unity.
  • Cultural Globalization: The global flow of goods, information, and cultural homogenization threatens to dilute the unifying forces within India.