UNIT 4 VILLAGE INDIA

Introduction to Village Societies and Culture in India

Overview:

• Previous Context:
  • Examination of India as a civilization, colony, and nation-state.
  • Focus on essential elements, civilizational heritage, and changes due to colonialism and modern institutions.

Focus of Current Unit:

• Village Societies and Culture:
  • Importance of villages: Over 60% of India's population lives in rural areas and relies on agriculture and related professions.
  • Examination of villages as:
    • Social Units: Structure and dynamics.
    • Economic Units: Agriculture and related professions.
    • Political Units: Governance and local administration.

Key Aspects to Explore:

1. Caste System:

   • Social hierarchy and its impact on village life.
   • Interaction between different castes and social roles.

2. Interaction Between Traditions:

   • Little Tradition: Local, rural practices and customs.
   • Great Tradition: Broader cultural and religious practices influencing villages.

3. Panchayati Raj System:

   • Structure and function of local self-government in villages.
   • Role in governance and community development.

Impact of Colonialism:

• Political Changes:
  • Reforms and administrative changes affecting rural areas.
• Economic Changes:
  • Shifts in agricultural practices and land ownership.
• Social Changes:
  • Influence of colonial policies on social structures and village life.

Continuing Importance of Villages:

• Despite urban migration, villages remain central to India’s social, cultural, political, and economic landscape.
• Village Studies (1950s and 60s):
• Insights gained from research on village societies.
• Contribution to understanding village dynamics and issues.

Indian Village: Myth and Reality

1. Historical Perspective on Indian Villages

• Timelessness & Continuity: Indian villages have a long history, contributing to a sense of timelessness.
  • Arthashastra (400 BCE-200 AD): Provides early classification of village administration.
  • Al Biruni’s Kitab al Hind (11th century): Details caste-based occupational organization in villages.

2. Colonial Representations

• Self-Sufficient Communities: British administrators like James Mill and Charles Metcalfe portrayed Indian villages as self-sufficient, independent units.
  • Metcalfe (1810): Described villages as "little republics" that persisted through dynastic changes.
  • Thomas Munro: Called villages "mini republics."
• Caste System: Colonial discourse emphasized the functional integration of caste-based occupations, contributing to the perceived harmony and simplicity of village life.
• Baden-Powell’s Study (1892): Explored the relationship between villages and state demands but reinforced the idea of village harmony, overlooking internal conflicts and inequalities.

3. Indian Nationalist Views

• Gandhiji’s Vision:
  • Idealized Village Life: Saw villages as the soul of India, embodying simplicity, truth, and non-violence.
  • Gram Swaraj: Dreamed of self-sustained villages, though he acknowledged it as an ideal, not practical reality.
• B.R. Ambedkar’s Critique:
  • Viewed villages as sites of factionalism and caste-based inequity, calling them "cesspools" of discrimination.

4. Debates and Studies in the 1950s

• Village Studies:
  • M.N. Srinivas, McKim Marriott, D.N. Majumdar, S.C. Dube (1955): These scholars conducted detailed studies on Indian villages, challenging the notion of self-sufficiency and highlighting external influences.
• Srinivas & Beteille’s Critique:
  • Argued against the idea of villages being completely self-sufficient, emphasizing their connections to broader networks.

5. Key Points of Contention

• Self-Sufficiency vs. External Influence:
  • While colonial views emphasized self-sufficiency, later studies revealed villages were part of a wider socio-economic network.
• Myth vs. Reality:
• The idealized image of the village as harmonious and self-contained was challenged by scholars who highlighted internal conflicts, inequalities, and external dependencies.

Village as a Social Unit

1. Social Organization of Villages

• Key Elements:
  • Caste, Kinship, Economy, Politics, and Religion: These are the primary pillars around which village social life is organized.
  • Village Identity: The village is a key source of personal identity and prestige for its residents, alongside caste, class, or locality.
• Social Connectivity:
  • Villages are not isolated; they connect to the wider world through fairs, festivals, and exogamous marriage practices, particularly in North India.
  • M.N. Srinivas (1976): Insults to one's village were taken personally, akin to an insult to oneself or one’s family.

2. Village Unity and Solidarity

• Intra-Caste and Inter-Caste Relations:
  • M.N. Srinivas (1952), A.M. Shah & I.P. Desai (1988): Solidarity within the village plays a key role in maintaining stability. The village acts as a cohesive unit despite internal differences.
  • S.C. Dube: Although Indian villages vary greatly, they share common features such as a distinct identity, a unified social organization, and mutual obligations among different castes and communities.
• Corporate Unity:
  • Villages often present a united front to the outside world, despite internal conflicts or factions. The integration of various castes and communities within the village’s economic, social, and ritual patterns strengthens this unity.

3. Critiques of the Village Unity Thesis

• Beteille’s Perspective:
  • Beteille (1996): A village may be a unit in a physical sense, but it is less so in a social sense, questioning the idea of complete unity.
• Radical Critiques:
• F.G. Bailey (1960): Critiqued the ‘unity-reciprocity’ thesis, arguing that the interdependency and harmony between castes are exaggerated.
• Coercion in Caste Relations:
• Bailey emphasized that the supposed reciprocity between castes is often enforced by the dominant caste through coercive means, rather than true equality or mutual obligation.

Indian Villages: Myths and Realities

Myth vs Reality of Indian Villages

• Historical Perspective:

  • Arthashastra (400 BCE-200AD): Detailed duties related to village administration.
  • Al Biruni’s Kitab al Hind (11th Century): Describes caste-based occupation in villages.

• Colonial View:

  • James Mill & Charles Metcalfe:
    • Metcalfe's Perspective (1810): Villages as "little republics," self-sufficient and nearly independent of external influences.
    • Thomas Munro's Description: Similar "mini republics" view.
    • Dominant Colonial Discourse: Villages were seen as self-contained, harmonious units with communal ownership and functional integration of caste-based labor.

• Critique and Problems:

  • Baden-Powell's Work: Acknowledged internal conflicts and regional variations in villages.
  • Late 19th Century: Emerging issues like famine, riots, and land alienation challenged the simplistic colonial view.

• Nationalist Views:

  • Mahatma Gandhi:
    • Idealized villages as symbols of simplicity and Indian-ness (Gram Swaraj).
    • Recognized the dream-like nature of this vision, acknowledging it as impractical.
  • B.R. Ambedkar: Critiqued villages as centers of caste-based inequity.

• Academic Studies:

  • 1950s Field Studies:
    • M.N. Srinivas, S.C. Dube, McKim Marriot: Analyzed villages in-depth, challenging the colonial notion of self-sufficiency.
    • Beteille's Critique: Villages are not entirely self-sufficient or harmonious; connections with external entities exist.

Village as a Social Unit

• Social Life:

  • Organized around caste, kinship, economy, politics, and religion.
  • Identity: Villages are key to residents' identity and prestige, linked by rituals and festivals to the broader world.
  • Caste Exogamy: Practices like village exogamy link villages in kinship networks.

• Solidarity and Conflict:

  • M.N. Srinivas, A.M. Shah, I.P. Desai: Village solidarity exists but varies.
  • Dube's Observations:
    • Villages have distinct social organizations but share common features like economic, social, and ritual patterns.
  • Beteille's Critique: Emphasized physical unity over social unity in villages.
  • Lewis & Bailey: Criticized the notion of unity and reciprocity, highlighting coercion in caste relations.

Caste System and Kinship Networks

• Caste Hierarchy:

  • Varna System:
    • Dvijas (Twice-born): Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas.
    • Shudras: Occupational castes, considered 'clean'.
    • Untouchables: Lowest in the hierarchy.
  • Hierarchy and Mobility:
    • Mobility possible but complicated, often involving local power structures (Sanskritisation).

• Little Traditions vs. Great Traditions:

  • Double Process:
    • Universalization: Village culture integrating into wider society.
    • Parochialization: Pan-Indian culture filtering into village life.
  • Sanskritisation:
    • Spread of Sanskritic elements from higher to lower castes.
    • Interaction between local and all-India Hinduism, seen in festivals, deities, and pilgrimages.

• Social Networks:

• Marriage Practices: Caste endogamy and village exogamy.
• Kinship Networks: Villages are socially connected through kinship and marriage, indicating they are not isolated units.

Indian Villages: Economic Unit

Village as an Economic Unit

• Myth of Self-Sufficiency:

  • Historically, the idea of Indian villages being economically self-sufficient has been a long-held myth.
  • Marx’s View:
    • Villages were seen as part of the Asiatic mode of production.
    • Combined agriculture with production, leading to an unchanging and stifling society.
    • Colonial Impact: Marx believed colonialism, leading to class-based stratification, would positively change Indian society.

• Jajmani System:

  • Definition: A system of economic exchange based on reciprocity between landlords and peasants, typically inherited over generations.
  • Payment: Often in kind (e.g., grains) due to the absence of monetization.
  • Limited Communication: Poor infrastructure restricted the flow of goods, reinforcing the perception of self-sufficiency.

  

• Ethnographic Studies:

  • William and Charlotte Wiser (1936/1969):
    • Studied the village of Karimpur in Western UP.
    • Conceptualized social relationships among caste groups through the lens of reciprocity.
    • One of the earliest ethnographic studies of village life in India.

Class-Based Stratification

• Shift from Caste to Class:
  • Kathleen Gough’s Study (1989):
    • Researched the village of Kumbapettai in Tanjore over three decades.
    • Observed the transformation of caste hierarchies into class-based stratification.
    • Castes (Brahmins, Non-Brahmins, Adi-Dravidas) started aligning with new class categories (owners, tenants, laborers).
• Class Formation:
• Andre Beteille’s Study of Sripuram (1965):
• Observed similar shifts in Tamil villages.
• Emergence of new classes: petty bourgeoisie, independent entrepreneurs, and semi-proletariat.
• Commercialization of Agriculture:
• Shift from ascription (birth-based status) to achievement and skill-based criteria.
• This change brought about new social dynamics and economic relationships in rural India.

Economic Relationship Between Villages and the Outside World

Village Markets and Haats

• Village Markets:
  • Serve multiple purposes: economic, political, recreational, and social.
  • Haats (Weekly Markets):
    • Ancient institutions linking villages with neighboring areas.
    • Essential for acquiring goods not available locally, like silver and gold for weddings.
    • Example: Pushkar’s annual camel fair is a traditional rural market.
  • Despite improved transport and communication, weekly markets remain culturally significant.

Caste-Based Specialization

• Specialized Tasks by Caste:
  • Specific castes performed specialized tasks (e.g., potters, blacksmiths).
  • Artisan and service castes often served multiple villages, sharing their skills across regions (e.g., barbers, priests, doctors).
  • Urban Dependency:
    • Urban areas rely on rural hinterlands for food grains, raw materials, and handicrafts.

Economic Integration and Capitalism

• Linking Village Markets to Formal Networks:
  • The penetration of capitalism linked village markets to wider economic systems.
  • Industrialization and urbanization offered new economic opportunities, varying across villages.

Case Studies Highlighting Village and External Ties:

• S.C. Dube’s Shamirpet Study (1955):

  • Increasing economic ties with Hyderabad, even among traditionally isolated groups like washermen.

• McKim Marriot’s Kishan Garhi Study (1955):

  • Described interactions between villages.
  • Service castes (e.g., Brahman priests, barbers) traveled to serve patrons in multiple villages, earning about half of their income from these outside patrons.

• M.N. Srinivas’ Rampura Study (1955):

  • WWII brought increased cash and economic activities, such as electrification, rice mills, and bus lines, connecting the village with Mysore City.

• Kathleen Gough’s Kumbapettai Study (1955):

  • Dominant Brahmin groups migrated to towns for education and jobs.
  • Influx of lower castes from neighboring areas integrated the village into a broader economic system.

• M.S.A. Rao’s Yadavpur Study (1974):

  • Observed the impact of Delhi’s growth on the village, with new urban employment opportunities in gardening, dairy, poultry farming, transport, etc.

Economic Changes Post-Independence

• Impact of British Colonialism:
  • Industrialization and urbanization under British rule began integrating villages into wider economic networks.
• Post-Independence Developments:
  • Planned development and welfare programs further linked villages to the national economy.
  • Village as a Nation-Building Template:
    • Initiatives like cooperative banking, commercial farming, Green Revolution techniques, democratic processes, and Self-Help Groups for women have transformed village economies.

Conclusion

• Indian villages were never fully economically self-sufficient, even during British times.
• Industrialization, urbanization, and government programs have deeply integrated villages into the wider economic system.
• No two villages are identical, but they share similarities in socio-economic dimensions.

Village as a Political Unit

Traditional Village Governance and British Influence

• Indian Villages as 'Little Republics':

  • Early 19th-century British administrators viewed Indian villages as self-governing units with minimal interference from higher political authorities.
  • They described villages as functioning independently, regardless of who ruled the kingdom.

• Pre-British Political Relationship:

  • The assumption of political autonomy in villages before British rule is oversimplified.
  • Villages were actively involved with the state, not merely limited to paying taxes or providing men for wars.
  • Kings had a complex relationship with their subjects, providing infrastructure like roads, tanks, canals, temples, and land grants to Brahmins.
  • The king was the ultimate authority in caste disputes and other inter-caste conflicts, a role also played by Mughal rulers and feudal lords.

• Village Independence and Rebellion:

  • Villagers could rebel or migrate if a king was oppressive, impacting the king’s revenue as labor was scarce.
  • Despite this, villages had a significant amount of independence due to poor communication and lack of roads.
  • Local governance was managed by village panchayats, dominated by the local dominant caste, which handled law and order, inter-caste disputes, and other local matters.

Impact of British Colonial Rule

• Changes in Governance:
  • British colonial rule altered the relationship between villages and the state.
  • Introduction of modern law courts reduced the power of village panchayats, with major disputes now settled by courts.
  • The presence of government officials (police, revenue officers) in villages increased, reducing the village's autonomy.

Post-Independence Political Integration

• Panchayati Raj System:

  • Post-Independence Era: The introduction of parliamentary democracy and adult franchise fully integrated villages into the wider political system.
  • Villagers now elect members to local bodies (Gram Panchayat) and higher political offices (state legislature, Parliament).
  • Political parties become active during elections, mobilizing support in villages.
  • Government policies like the Community Development Schemes impact village life.

• Case Study: Devisar Village (1975):

  • Anand Chakravarti’s study analyzed how land reforms and Panchayati Raj-based political processes changed social and political relations in the village.

• 73rd Amendment of 1992:

  • Introduced SC/ST reservation and 1/3rd reservation for women in Panchayats.
  • Made elections mandatory every five years, enhancing self-governance.
  • Enabled monitoring of various schemes through Gram Panchayat bodies.

Interaction with Higher Political Levels

• Integration with Broader Political System:
  • While the village operates as a political unit with an elected panchayat, it is part of a larger system:
    • Village → District/Zilla → State → Indian Union.
  • Continuous interaction occurs between these different political levels.